Motivation and Emotion

Motivation and Emotion
Chapter 8

AP Learning Objectives in Chapter 8
Motivation and Emotion Apply motivational concepts to behavior Compare motivational theories Key contributors in motivation & emotion Biological underpinnings of motivation Classical research in motivation Compare theories of emotion How culture shapes emotional expressions Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Psychology of Motivation
In your words, define and give an example of: Motive Need Drive (not drive a car but a drive you have experienced) Instinct Homeostasis Consider each of these in terms of HUMAN motivation.

Theories of Motivation
Instinct theory Drive-Reduction theory McClelland’s Theory of Needs Optimum Arousal Approach to Motivation Cognitive Dissonance/Cognitive Consistency (both are related to arousal theory) Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Carol Dweck’s Self-Theory (not in notes, p. 359 text) Self-Determination Theory Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Motivation Motivation is a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior toward a goal.

LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation
AP Apply motivational concepts to behavior Motivation Motivation - the process by which activities are started, directed, and continued so that physical or psychological needs or wants are met. Extrinsic motivation - type of motivation in which a person performs an action because it leads to an outcome that is separate from or external to the person. Intrinsic motivation - type of motivation in which a person performs an action because the act itself is rewarding or satisfying in some internal manner. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Instinct Approaches to Motivation
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation AP Apply motivational concepts to behavior Instinct Approaches to Motivation Instincts - the biologically determined and innate patterns of behavior that exist in both people and animals. Instinct approach - approach to motivation that assumes people are governed by instincts similar to those of animals. This is the most basic theory of human motivation and only accounts for UNLEARNED behaviors. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation AP Compare motivational theories Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation Need - a requirement of some material (such as food or water) that is essential for survival of the organism. Drive - a psychological tension and physical arousal arising when there is a need that motivates the organism to act in order to fulfill the need and reduce the tension. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Drive-Reduction Theory
Drive-reduction theory is the idea that a physiological need creates a state of tension (a drive) that motivates and organism to satisfy that need. Eating and drinking are drive-reducing behaviors. People experience a drive arising from a need as an unpleasant tension, so they reduce the tension by reducing the drive. Drive-reduction relies on extrinsic motivation. In addition, environmental incentives pull us toward a stimuli. Your hunger drive pushes you to eat; your favorite food is a stronger incentive to eat than something that has made you sick in the past or that doesn’t smell good to you.

Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation
LO 8.1 Instinct and drive-reduction approaches to motivation AP Biological underpinnings of motivation Drive Reduction Theory of Motivation Primary drives - those drives that involve needs of the body such as hunger and thirst. Acquired (secondary) drives - those drives that are learned through experience or conditioning, such as the need for money or social approval. Homeostasis - the tendency of the body to maintain a steady state. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

McClelland’s Three Types of Needs
LO Three types of needs AP Compare motivational theories Need for achievement (nAch) - a need that involves a strong desire to succeed in attaining goals, not only realistic ones but also challenging ones. Need for affiliation (nAff) - the need for friendly social interactions and relationships with others. Need for power (nPow) - the need to have control or influence over others. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Arousal Approach to Motivation
LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation AP Compare motivational theories Arousal Approach to Motivation Stimulus motive - a motive that appears to be unlearned but causes an increase in stimulation, such as curiosity. Arousal theory - theory of motivation in which people are said to have an optimal (best or ideal) level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

The Yerkes-Dodson Law This “law” is the theory that a degree of psychological arousal (mental alertness) helps performance, but only to a point. The optimum level of arousal depends on the difficulty of the task. Too much or too little arousal can decrease performance. Our behaviors are the result of trying to maintain our optimal level of arousal. We are driven to reach our optimal levels of arousal.

The Yerkes-Dodson Law Examples
Three friends are discussing the ACT test. All of them have approximately equal levels of intelligence and knowledge. What makes them different? Friend A: “I don’t care about the test. I’m not going to college anyway.” Friend B: “I want to do well, but if I don’t, it’s not going to permanently ruin my life. I’ll just retake it.” Friend C: “If I don’t get a 30 or above, my life is over!” Using the Yerkes-Dodson Law, who will most likely perform the best?

LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation
AP Compare motivational theories Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.3 Arousal incentive approaches to motivation
AP Compare motivational theories Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Our Need for Balance: Arousal Theory
Cognitive consistency maintains that people are motivated think and behave in ways that meet other people’s expectations. Example: gender roles Balance theory (another name for arousal theory) suggests people need to maintain a sense of balance by keeping consistent views and maintaining friendships with “like” individuals to achieve a state of balance. Imbalance (state of disagreement) and nonbalance (state of indifference) may cause problems within relationships.

Our Need for Balance The cognitive dissonance theory states that most people are motivated (driven) to reduce imbalance and nonbalance in their lives because they feel the need to be comfortable. Imbalance makes people uncomfortable. If the resulting lack of balance may result in the end of a relationship, people may try to ignore the problem or avoid dealing with it. Why doesn’t this work? It sounds contradictory to balance theory and arousal theory. Arousal theory is related to physiological needs, balance is related to emotional needs, and cognitive dissonance is related to cognitive needs. If all of these aren’t met, and the missing ones are ignored, there is a lack of balance.

Our Need for Belonging Because we “crave” balance in our lives, affiliation may become important. Most people equate balance with belonging and having a sense of purpose. The desire (need) to affiliate (be a part of something larger than oneself) is what makes people driven to make friends, to join groups, or to participate in activities. Belonging gives you a purpose that beyond your individual self.

Our Need for Belonging Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rate because they cooperated with each other to hunt, to forage, to survive. What makes your life meaningful? What is necessary for your happiness? Why do you think our self-esteem is correlated so highly with our sense of belonging? What do you think? Is technology helping or hurting your sense of belonging? What do you feel like when you are ostracized?

Homeostasis: The End Game of Arousal Theory
Homeostasis is simply a return to normal. Your body has tendency to maintain a balanced or constant internal state. Balancing our internal states means regulating such things as hormone levels. Think of it like your home thermostat. If it’s set on 72 degrees and it gets to 74 degrees, the air conditioner will come on. Your body works the same way if it’s working properly. It releases the appropriate amount of hormone or neurotransmitter when you need it.

What’s the Difference between Drive-Reduction and Arousal Theory?
Each theory emphasizes something different. Drive-reduction focuses on removing deficits. Homeostasis focuses on avoiding both deficits and surpluses. Which do you think is more effective? Which describes your motivational style?

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Maslow recognized that some needs take precedence over others. The ultimate goal is to reach self-actualization, the need to realize full and unique potential. Critics fault Maslow’s research methods because his sample size was too small, he selected his own participants, and he defined his own terms ambiguously. Also, often people do not conform to Maslow’s hierarchy.

Incentive Approaches to Motivation
LO 8.3 Arousal and incentive approaches to motivation AP Compare motivational theories Incentive Approaches to Motivation Incentives - things that attract or lure people into action. Incentive approaches - theories of motivation in which behavior is explained as a response to the external stimulus and its rewarding properties. Expectancy-value theories - incentive theories that assume the actions of humans cannot be predicted or fully understood without understanding the beliefs, values, and the importance that a person attaches to those beliefs and values at any given moment in time. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
LO Maslow’s hierarchy of needs AP Key contributors in motivation & emotion Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Self-actualization - according to Maslow, the point that is seldom reached at which people have sufficiently satisfied the lower needs and achieved their full human potential. Peak experiences- according to Maslow, times in a person’s life during which self-actualization is temporarily achieved. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.4 Maslow’s hierarchy of needs AP Key contributors in motivation & emotion
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Self-Determination Theory of Motivation
LO Maslow’s hierarchy of needs AP Compare motivational theories Self-Determination Theory of Motivation Self-determination theory (SDT) - theory of human motivation in which the social context of an action has an effect on the type of motivation existing for the action. The three inborn and universal needs according to this theory are: autonomy (need for control of one’s own behavior and goals); competence (the need to master challenges in one’s life); and relatedness (the need for belonging, security, and intimacy in relationships). Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.5 Bodily causes of hunger and social factors
AP Biological underpinnings of motivation Hunger: Bodily Causes Insulin - a hormone secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by reducing the level of glucose in the bloodstream. Glucagons- hormones that are secreted by the pancreas to control the levels of fats, proteins, and carbohydrates in the body by increasing the level of glucose in the bloodstream. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

AP Biological underpinnings of motivation Hunger: Bodily Causes Weight set point – the particular level of weight that the body tries to maintain. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) - the rate at which the body burns energy when the organism is resting. Menu Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Hunger: Social Causes Social cues for when meals are to be eaten.
LO Bodily causes of hunger and social factors Social cues for when meals are to be eaten. Cultural customs. Food preferences. Use of food as a comfort device or escape from unpleasantness. Some people may respond to the anticipation of eating by producing an insulin response, increasing the risk of obesity. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Eating Problems LO 8.6 Some problems in eating behavior Obesity - a condition in which the body weight of a person is 20 percent or more over the ideal body weight for that person’s height (actual percents vary across definitions). Anorexia nervosa - a condition in which a person reduces eating to the point that a weight loss of 15 percent below the ideal body weight or more occurs. Bulimia - a condition in which a person develops a cycle of “binging” or overeating enormous amounts of food at one sitting, and “purging” or deliberately vomiting after eating. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.6 Some problems in eating behavior
AP Classic research in motivation Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.6 Some problems in eating behavior

Biological Factors of Eating Problems
LO 8.6 Some problems in eating behavior AP Biological underpinnings of motivation Biological Factors of Eating Problems Leptin - a hormone that, when released into the bloodstream, signals the hypothalamus that the body has had enough food and reduces the appetite while increasing the feeling of being full. Role of leptin in obesity. Genetics and obesity. Genetics may play a part in anorexia and bulimia, as well as insensitivity to leptin. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion
AP Compare theories of emotion Elements of Emotion Emotion - the “feeling” aspect of consciousness, characterized by a certain physical arousal, a certain behavior that reveals the emotion to the outside world, and an inner awareness of feelings. Display rules - learned ways of controlling displays of emotion in social settings. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Common Sense Theory of Emotion
LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion AP Compare theories of emotion Common Sense Theory of Emotion Common Sense Theory of Emotion - a stimulus leads to an emotion, which then leads to bodily arousal. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.7 Three elements of emotion AP Compare theories of emotion

James-Lange Theory of Emotion
LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon- Bard theories of emotion AP Compare theories of emotion James-Lange Theory of Emotion James-Lange theory of emotion - theory in which a physiological reaction leads to the labeling of an emotion. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
LO 8.8 James-Lange and Cannon- Bard theories of emotion AP Compare theories of emotion Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion Cannon-Bard theory of emotion - theory in which the physiological reaction and the emotion are assumed to occur at the same time. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Cognitive Arousal Theory of Emotion
LO 8.9 Cognitive arousal theory of emotion AP Compare theories of emotion Cognitive arousal theory – theory of emotion in which both the physical arousal and the labeling of that arousal based on cues from the environment must occur before the emotion is experienced. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Schacter and Singer’s Study of Emotion
LO 8.9 Schacter and Singer’s classic study of emotion AP Compare theories of emotion Schacter and Singer’s Study of Emotion Participants who were exposed to the “happy” man interpreted their physical arousal as happiness. Participants who were exposed to the “angry” man interpreted their physical arousal as anger

Facial Feedback Hypothesis
LO Facial feedback hypothesis AP Compare theories of emotion Facial Feedback Hypothesis theory of emotion that assumes that facial expressions provide feedback to the brain concerning the emotion being expressed, which in turn causes and intensifies the emotion. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.9 Facial feedback hypothesis AP Compare theories of emotion

Cognitive Mediational Theory
LO Cognitive-mediational theory AP Compare theories of emotion Cognitive Mediational Theory Cognitive-mediational theory - theory of emotion in which a stimulus must be interpreted (appraised) by a person in order to result in a physical response and an emotional reaction. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

LO 8.9 Cognitive-mediational theory AP Compare theories of emotion

AP Compare theories of emotion

Positive Psychology Movement
LO Positive psychology movement Positive psychology movement - a viewpoint that recommends shifting the focus of psychology away from the negative aspects to a more positive focus on strengths, well-being, and the pursuit of happiness. Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Motivation and Emotion

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