1. Terms Pertaining to the Body as a Whole
Chapter 2
Pages 33 – 74

2. Structural Organization of the Body
Page 34
Structural Organization of the Body
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Systems
Cells = the smallest living unit
Tissue = a group of similar cells working together to do a specific job.
Histologist = a scientist who specializes in the study of tissues.
Organ = Different types of tissue combined to form organs. Example: The stomach is composed of muscle, nerve, & glandular epithelial tissue (viscera = the medical term for internal organs [singular: viscus].)
Systems = groups of organs working together to perform complex functions.

3. Structural Organization of the Body (Cont’d)
Page 34
Structural Organization of the Body (Cont’d)
Major parts of a cell include:
Chromosomes
Nucleus
Cell membrane
Cytoplasm
Mitochondria
Endoplasmic reticulum
Cells – It is the fundamental unit of all living things (animal or plant). Every tissue and organ is made up of these individual units. Major parts of a cell include:
ALL CELLS contain a gelatinous substance composed of water, protein, sugar, acids, fats, and various materials.
Chromosomes: rod like-structures within the nucleus that contains thousands of genes. All human body cells – except for the sex cells, the egg & the sperm (short for spermatozoon) – contain 23 pairs of chromosomes. Each sperm & egg cell have only 23 unpaired chromosomes. After egg & a sperm cell unite to form the embryo, each cell of the embryo then has 46 chromosomes (23 pairs).
Nucleus: controls the operation of the cell. It directs cell division and determines the structure and function of the cell
Cell membrane: surrounds and protects the cell. It also regulates what passes into and out of the cell.
Cytoplasm: includes all of the material outside the nucleus and enclosed by the cells membrane. It carries on the work of the cell; contains specialized apparatus to supply the chemical needs of the cell.
Mitochondria (power plants): structures in the cytoplasm that provide the principal source of energy for the cell.
Endoplasmic reticulum: Network of canals within the cytoplasm of the cell. Contain ribosomes.

4. Similarity in Cells Page 35 – 37 Ribosomes Gene DNA Karyotype
Metabolism
Catabolism
Anabolism
Ribosomes: builds long chains of protein
Gene: contains a chemical called DNA.
DNA: regulates the activities of the cell according to its sequence. resembles a series of recipes in code. This code, when passed out of the nucleus to the rest of the cell, directs the activities of the cell, such as cell division & synthesis of proteins.
Karyotype: a test to identify and evaluate the size, shape, & number of chromosomes in a sample of body cells. Extra or missing chromosomes, or abnormal positions of chromosome pieces, can cause problems with a person's growth, development, and body functions
Metabolism: Total chemical process in a cell. It includes catabolism & anabolism.
Catabolism: the process that occurs in mitochondria.
Anabolism: process of building large proteins from small protein pieces called amino acids.

5. Differences in Cells Page 38
Cells are specialized to carry out their individual functions.
muscle cell
epithelial cell
nerve cell
fat cell
Cells are specialized to carry out their individual functions.
muscle cell = long & slender & contains fibers that aid in contracting & relaxing
epithelial cell = square & flat to provide protection (a lining & skin cell)
nerve cell = long & have various fibrous extensions that aid in carrying impulses
fat cell = contains large, empty spaces for fat storage.

6. Tissues Pages 38 – 39 The different types: Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscle tissue
Nerve tissue
The different types:
Epithelial Tissue – Located all over the body, forms the linings of internal organs and the outer surface of the skin covering the body. Lines exocrine and endocrine glands
Connective Tissue – Examples: adipose (fat) tissue, cartilage, bone, blood
Muscle Tissue –
Voluntary = found in arms, legs & parts of the body where movement is under conscious control.
Involuntary = found in the heart, digestive system & in other organs, where movement is not under conscious control
Cardiac = found only in the heart
Nerve Tissue – tissue conducts impulses all over the body.

7. Systems Review Page 40 System Organs Digestive
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestine, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
Urinary or Excretory
Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
Respiratory
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes, lungs
Endocrine
Thyroid gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, sex, adrenal, and parathyroid glands
Nervous
Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and collections of nerves

8. Systems Review (Cont’d)
Page 40
Systems Review (Cont’d)
System
Organs
Circulatory
Heart, blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nodes, spleen, and thymus glands
Skin and Sense organs
Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, and sebaceous glands, eye, ear, nose, and tongue
Reproductive
Female: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands
Male: Testes and associated tubes, urethra, penis, prostate gland
Musculoskeletal
Muscles, bones, and joints

9. Structural Organization of the Body: Body Cavities
Page 40
Structural Organization of the Body: Body Cavities
Cranial
Spinal
Thoracic
Abdominal
Pelvic
Body cavities are spaces within the body that contains internal organs
Cranial = Brain, pituitary gland
Spinal = Nerves of the spinal cord
Thoracic = Lungs, heart, esophagus, trachea, bronchial tubes, thymus gland, aorta
It is divided into two smaller cavities:
Pleural cavity - space surrounding each lung. The pleura is a double membrane that surrounds the lungs & protects them. If the pleura is inflamed, the pleural cavity may fill with fluid.
Mediastinum - It contains the heart, aorta, trachea, esophagus, thymus gland, bronchial tubes, & many lymph nodes.
The diaphragm divides the abdominal & thoracic cavities.
Abdominal (Peritoneum) – the double-folded membrane surrounding the abdominal cavity. It attaches the abdominal organs to the abdominal muscles & surrounds each organ to hold it in place. It contains the stomach, small & large intestines, spleen, pancreas, liver, & gallbladder.
Pelvic = Portions of the small & larges intestines, rectum, urinary bladder, urethra, & ureters (uterus & vagina in the female)
The kidneys are situated behind the abdominal cavity on either side of the backbone.

10. Abdominopelvic Regions
Page 48
Abdominopelvic Regions

11. Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Page 49
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Right upper quadrant (RUQ) – contains the liver (right lobe), gallbladder, part of the pancreas, parts of the small & large intestines
Left upper quadrant (LUQ) – contains the liver (left lobe), stomach, spleen, part of the pancreas, parts of the small & large intestines
Right lower quadrant (RLQ) – contains parts of the small & large intestines, right ovary, right fallopian tube, appendix, right ureter
Left lower quadrant (LLQ) – contains parts of the small & large intestines, left ovary, left fallopian tube, left ureter

12. Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column)
Page 50 – 51
Divisions of the Back (Spinal Column)
Each bone is a vertebra (plural: vertebrae)
Cervical
Thoracic
Lumbar
Sacral
Coccygeal
The spinal column is composed of a series of bones that extend from the neck to the tailbone. Each bone is a vertebra (plural: vertebrae)
Cervical – Neck region. There are seven cervical vertebrae (C1 to C7)
Thoracic – Chest region. There are 12 thoracic vertebrae (T1 to T12)
Lumbar – Loin (waist) or flank region (between the ribs & the hip bone) There are five lumbar vertebrae (L1 to L5)
Sacral – Five bones (S1 to S5) are fused to from one bone, the sacrum
Coccygeal – The coccyx (tailbone) is a small bone composed of four fused pieces.
spinal column = bone tissue vs. spinal cord = nervous tissue
Intervertebral spaces = The spaces between the vertebrae (identified according to the two vertebrae between which they occur)
Disk (disc) = a small pad within the space & between vertebrae. The disk, composed of water & cartilage, is a shock absorber. A disk may move out of place & put pressure on a nerve. This “slipped disk” can cause pain in an area of the body affected by the nerve.

13. Positional and Directional Terms
Page 52
Positional and Directional Terms
Anterior (ventral) vs Posterior (dorsal)
Medial vs Lateral
Supine vs Prone
Deep vs Superficial
Proximal vs Distal
Inferior vs Superior
Anterior (Ventral) = Front side of the body AND Posterior (Dorsal) = Back side of the body
EXAMPLE: The forehead is on the anterior side of the body
EXAMPLE: The back of the head is posterior to the face
Deep = Away from the surface AND Superficial = On the surface
EXAMPLE: The stab wound penetrated deep into the abdomen
EXAMPLE: Superficial veins can be viewed through the skin
Proximal = Near the point of attachment to the trunk or near the beginning of the structure AND Distal = Far from the point of attachment to the trunk of far from the beginning of a structure
EXAMPLE: The proximal end of the thigh bone joins with the hip socket
EXAMPLE: At its distal end, the femur joins with the knee
Inferior = Below another structure AND Superior = Above another structure
EXAMPLE: The feet are at the inferior part of the body
EXAMPLE: The head lies superior to the neck
Medial = Pertaining to the middle, or nearer the medial plane of the body AND Lateral = Pertaining to the side
EXAMPLE: When in the anatomic position (palms of the hands facing outward), the fifth (little) finger is medial
EXAMPLE: When in anatomic position, the thumb is lateral
Supine = lying on the back AND Prone = Lying on the belly
EXAMPLE: The patient lies supine during an examination of the abdomen & in females, during a pelvic exam
EXAMPLE: The backbones are examined with the patient in a prone position.

14. Planes of the Body Page 52 Frontal (coronal) Sagittal (lateral)
Transverse (cross-sectional or axial)
Frontal (coronal) Plane = Vertical plane dividing the body or structure into anterior & posterior portions.
A common chest x-ray veiw is PA (posteroanterior - veiw from back to from) view, which is in the frontal (coronal) plane
Sagittal (lateral) Plane = Legthwise vertical plane dividing the body or structure into right & left sides.
The midsagittal plane divides the body into right & lefts halves. A lateral (side-to-side) chest x-ray film is taken in the sagittal plane
Transverse (axial) Plane = Horizontal (cross-sectional) plane running across the body parallel to the ground.
This cross-sectional plane divides the body or structure into upper & lower portions. A CT (computed tomography) scan is one of a series of x-ray pictures taken in the transverse (axial or cross-sectional) plane.