1. Types of Learning
Classical conditioning: learning to link two stimuli in a way that helps us anticipate an event to which we have a reaction
Operant conditioning: changing behavior choices in response to consequences
Cognitive learning: acquiring new behaviors and information through observation and information, rather than by direct experience
Automatic animation.
There are millions of sensory neurons and millions of motor neurons, but BILLIONS of interneurons.

2. In classical conditioning
Cognitive Processes
In classical conditioning
In operant conditioning
When the dog salivates at the bell, it may be due to cognition (learning to predict, even expect, the food).
Conditioned responses can alter attitudes, even when we know the change is caused by conditioning.
However, knowing that our reactions are caused by conditioning gives us the option of mentally breaking the association, e.g. deciding that nausea associated with a food aversion was actually caused by an illness.
Higher-order conditioning involves some cognition; the name of a food may trigger salivation.
In fixed-interval reinforcement, animals do more target behaviors/responses around the time that the reward is more likely, as if expecting the reward.
Expectation as a cognitive skill is even more evident in the ability of humans to respond to delayed reinforcers such as a paycheck.
Higher-order conditioning can be enabled with cognition; e.g., seeing something such as money as a reward because of its indirect value.
Humans can set behavioral goals for self and others, and plan their own reinforcers.
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Psychotherapy relies on these cognitive processes. When dealing with panic disorder with agoraphobia, a client may not even agree to exposure therapy until they cognitively accept that a panic attack in a store did not mean that there was an actual danger in the store, even though they now have a conditioned fear of the store. This insight can begin to break the association between the store and danger; exposure therapy then finishes the job.

3. Biology and Operant Conditioning
Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive
Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift toward their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors
Marian Breland Bailey

4. Operant Vs. Classical Conditioning

5. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Skinner acknowledged the role of one’s cognition on operant conditioning
Cognitive Map:
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment
E.g. after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it

6. Cognition and Operant Conditioning
Latent Learning:
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it

7. Learning, Rewards, and Motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to the desire to perform a behavior well for its own sake. The reward is internalized as a feeling of satisfaction.
Extrinsic motivation refers to doing a behavior to receive rewards from others.
Intrinsic motivation can sometimes be reduced by external rewards, and can be prevented by using continuous reinforcement.
One principle for maintaining behavior is to use as few rewards as possible, and fade the rewards over time.
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Answer to the question on the slide: the person might lose intrinsic motivation, and might not reliably do the behavior well.
What might happen if we begin to reward a behavior someone was already doing and enjoying?

8. Types of Motivation Intrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic Motivation:
A desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
Extrinsic Motivation:
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

9. Types of Motivation
What is something that you are intrinsically motivated to do?
What is something that you are extrinsically motivated to do?
With which type of motivation is operant conditioning more effective?

10. Learning by Observation
Can we learn new behaviors and skills without conditioning and reward?
Yes, and one of the ways we do so is by observational learning: watching what happens when other people do a behavior and learning from their experience.
Skills required: mirroring, being able to picture ourselves doing the same action, and cognition, noticing consequences and associations.
Observational Learning Processes
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Modeling
The behavior of others serves as a model, an example of how to respond to a situation; we may try this model regardless of reinforcement.
Vicarious Conditioning
Vicarious: experienced indirectly, through others
Vicarious reinforcement and punishment means our choices are affected as we see others get consequences for their behaviors.

11. Learning By Observation
Observational Learning:
Learning by observing others
Also called Social Learning
Albert Bandura
Modeling:
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

12. Observational Learning and Language

13. Observational Learning and Language
Have you ever traveled to another country, or another region of the US, and found yourself speaking and/or acting similar to the people of that region?
Why do you think your speech and/or behavior changed?

14. Mirroring in the Brain
When we watch others doing or feeling something, neurons fire in patterns that would fire if we were doing the action or having the feeling ourselves.
These neurons are referred to as mirror neurons, and they fire only to reflect the actions or feelings of others.
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Instructor: in this image, the brain of the person empathizing/mirroring the feelings of another are firing in some of the same areas as the person experiencing pain. Notice that the areas are more closely related to the emotional anguish than the physical sensations (the sensory strip is not firing in the empathizer).
This mirroring can be involuntary, leading to the emotional “contagion” of moods and attitudes spreading from one person to another.

15. Mirror Neurons Mirror Neurons:
Frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so
The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy

16. From Mirroring to Imitation
Humans are prone to spontaneous imitation of both behaviors and emotions (“emotional contagion”).
This includes even overimitating, that is, copying adult behaviors that have no function and no reward.
Children with autism are less likely to cognitively “mirror,” and less likely to follow someone else’s gaze as a neurotypical toddler (left) is doing below.
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Instructor: perhaps you can nudge students to speculate why humans are more likely to have such a strong biological tendency to spontaneously have mirror neurons fire, and to have contagious emotions and behaviors.
One clue might be by seeing what is lost for children with autism who do not experience contagious yawning or have mirror neurons fire when seeing others experience actions and feelings. These children miss out on cognitive practice/observational learning of social skills, and have difficulty making social-emotional connections with others. They are able to feel such a connection, typically with family and partners, but have more difficulty establishing such connections without the quick “ESP” of neuronal mirroring.

17. Mirroring Plus Vicarious Reinforcement
Mirroring enables observational learning; we cognitively practice a behavior just by watching it.
If you combine this with vicarious reinforcement, we are even more likely to get imitation.
Monkey A saw Monkey B getting a banana after pressing four symbols. Monkey A then pressed the same four symbols (even though the symbols were in different locations).
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18. Albert Bandura’s Bobo Doll Experiment (1961)
Kids saw adults punching an inflated doll while narrating their aggressive behaviors such as “kick him.”
These kids were then put in a toy-deprived situation… and acted out the same behaviors they had seen.
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Instructor: point out to students that in each of the three pairs of pictures, the child is doing a behavior shown by the adult above. Maybe that’s selective editing and a coincidence…but the kids echoed the adult’s words also.
Students might consider a critical thinking question that some have asked in recent years: were the children really acting out aggression, or just bored? Actually, it doesn’t matter; the adults were not narrating anger, just narrating their actions. Even if the motivation is boredom, the kids were still imitating the adults’ behaviors.

19. Learning by observation begins early in life.
Imitation Onset
Learning by observation begins early in life.
This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV, in pulling a toy apart.

20. Imitation in Children
Can you remember any ways that you imitated others (parents, older siblings, cousins, etc.) as a child?
Can you remember any ways that your younger siblings, cousins, etc. imitated you?

21. Bandura’s “Bobo Doll” Experiment
Bandura's “Bobo Doll” Experiment (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.

22. Applications of Observational Learning
Unfortunately, Bandura’s studies show that antisocial models (family, neighborhood, or TV) may have antisocial effects.

23. Prosocial Effects of Observational Learning
Prosocial behavior refers to actions which benefit others, contribute value to groups, and follow moral codes and social norms.
Parents try to teach this behavior through lectures, but it may be taught best through modeling… especially if kids can see the benefits of the behavior to oneself or others.
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24. Applications of Observational Learning
Prosocial Behavior:
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior
The opposite of antisocial behavior

25. Antisocial Effects of Observational Learning
What happens when we learn from models who demonstrate antisocial behavior, actions that are harmful to individuals and society?
Children who witness violence in their homes, but are not physically harmed themselves, may hate violence but still may become violent more often than the average child.
Perhaps this is a result of “the Bobo doll effect”? Under stress, we do what has been modeled for us.
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26. Media Models of Violence
Do we learn antisocial behavior such as violence from indirect observations of others in the media?
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Research shows that viewing media violence leads to increased aggression (fights) and reduced prosocial behavior (such as helping an injured person).
This violence-viewing effect might be explained by imitation, and also by desensitization toward pain in others.