1. Memory

2. Memory
The persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
Your memory is your mind’s storehouse, the reservoir of your accumulated learning

3. Memory Memory involves three fundamental processes: Encoding Storage
Retrieval

4. Memory – Information Processing
Encoding – putting into
Storage – keeping
Retrieval –getting out

5. Encoding
Encoding is the processing of information into the memory system – the first step of building a memory is sensory input

6. Encoding – Effortful Processing
Two effortful practices that may help to gather (encode) sensory information include rehearsal and spacing

7. Encoding – Rehearsal – the conscious repetition of information
Like studying or practice!

8. Encoding –
Spacing Effect – rehearsing information repeatedly, over time.
Spaced studying beats cramming!
Rehearse a bit, take a break, begin rehearsing as you start forgetting things, take a break, rehearse again as you begin to forget, etc.

9. Types of Encoding
Visual (Mental) Encoding – the encoding of picture images
Acoustic Encoding – the encoding of sounds
Semantic Encoding – the encoding of meanings, especially of words

10. Visual / Mental Encoding
Where did you go yesterday, who was with you, where did you eat, and what did you wear? Remembering visual information is often easier than remembering formulas, definitions, names and dates.
Visual encoding applies the idea of mental pictures to words and concepts, in order to put them into memory easier.

11. Encoding –Mental / Visual Imagery
A mental picture of Lady Macbeth.
While reading John Grisham’s “The Firm”, you picture Tom Cruise as the main character.

12. Encoding – Mental Imagery
When encoding a list of words, apply a mental picture to each word. IE. Typewriter, fire, cigarette, scary.

13. Encoding – Mental Imagery Example
Grocery List
A through J
Make a list of thing you the grocery store starting with A, B, C – J
Directions follow

14. Auditory Encoding - Sounds
auditory encoding enhances the processing of information by applying rhyme schemes, stories, songs, etc. to the information.

15. Encoding – Auditory Encoding
30 Days has September, April, June and November. All the rest have 31, except February…
In fourteen hundred and ninety-two Columbus sailed the Ocean Blue.
"i" before "e," except after "c," or in sounding like "ay" as in "neighbor" or "weigh."

16. Auditory Encoding - Sounds
“What sobriety conceals, alcohol reveals”.
“If the glove doesn’t fit, you must acquit,” is easily remembered by jurors when a lawyer is fighting for his client’s innocence.

17. Encoding – Auditory Encoding
Songs are another great way to remember things – SCHOOL HOUSE ROCK !!

18. Encoding – More Strategies (Mnemonics)
Chunking – Organizing items into familiar, manageable units
Acronyms – Organizing items by creating words or sentences from the first letters of the words or information to be remembered

19. Chunking Numbers Put your pencil down
Remember the numbers I saw verbally

20. Encoding –Chunking
1,8,1,2,1,7,7,6,1,9,4,1,1,4,9,2

21. Much easier to encode the numbers into our memory if we “chunk” them:
Encoding –Chunking
Much easier to encode the numbers into our memory if we “chunk” them:
Try to remember these numbers:
1812, 1776, 1941, 1492

22. Where they easier to remember?
Encoding –Chunking
Where they easier to remember?
They were the same numbers as before…

23. 1,8,1,2,1,7,7,6,1,9,4,1,1,4,9,2
1812, 1776, 1941, 1492

24. Need to learn the names of North America’s five “Great Lakes”?
Encoding –Acronyms
Need to learn the names of North America’s five “Great Lakes”?
HOMES – Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

25. Encoding – Effortful Processing Acronyms
National Basketball Association – NBA
Self Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus – SCUBA

26. Encoding – Effortful Processing Acronyms
Can’t remember how to spell Arithmetic?
A Rat In Toms House Might Eat Toms Ice Cream

27. How about the planets in order…
Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally - mathematical order of operations: Parenthesis, Exponents, Multiply and Divide before you Add and Subtract
How about the planets in order…
My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nine Planets –
…only no more Pluto so how about My Very Educated Mother Just Showed Us Nothing

28. Encoding with emotions
Flashbulb Memories – a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
Where were you when 9/11 occurred, or when Kennedy was shot?
You clearly remember your first hit in Little League, your first kiss, the first day of high school, a funeral, a wedding….. even though the memory may be many years old, you have a clear recollection.

29. Part II Storage and Retrieval
Memory
Part II
Storage and Retrieval

30. Stage Model of Memory

31. Three Stages of Memory
Three memory stores that differ in function, capacity and duration
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; long-term memory; attention; encoding; maintenance rehearsal; retrieval

32. Memory – Information Processing
“Three-Stage Processing” Model
Memories are stored in a three-step process of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

33. Sensory Memory

34. Memory – Information Processing
Sensory Memory – the immediate, initial recording of sensory information; fleeting, to-be-remembered information

35. Sensory Memory
Function—holds information long enough to be processed for basic physical characteristics
Capacity—large
can hold many items at once
Duration—very brief retention of images
.3 sec for visual info
2 sec for auditory info
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory

36. Sensory Memory
Sensory memory forms automatically, without attention or interpretation
Attention is needed to transfer information to working memory
Sensory
Input
Memory
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention

37. Sensory Memory
Visual sensory memory—brief memory of an image or icon. Also called iconic memory
Auditory sensory memory—brief memory of a sound or echo. Also called echoic memory
Auditory sensory memories may last a bit longer than visual sensory memories

38. Okay – Get ready write down what you see

39. Sensory Memory
G Z E P
R K O D
B T X F

40. Sensory Memory How many letters can you recall?
Most people can recall four or five letters in that short of a time span, but know that there were more.

41. Sensory Memory
Sensory memory retention is what is used when you see a face in the crowd for a split second….you recognize features quickly, determine she/he was cute, but then you can’t remember any details of their face

42. Okay – Get ready

45. Sensory Memory Was he/she cute?
What was he/she wearing? What color was it?
What color was his/her hair? How long was it?
What color was her lipstick?
What was his/her facial expression?
What color were his/her eyes?

46. Short Term Memory

47. Memory – Information Processing
Short-Term Memory – activated memory that holds a few items briefly,
seven-digits of a phone number while you are dialing, and then the information is either stored, or forgotten

48. Short-Term Memory or Working Memory
The ability to hold and manipulate information over a brief period of time. Forgetting can occur rapidly, especially if distracted

49. Short-Term Memory or Working Memory
Short-term memory has two important characteristics.
First, short-term memory can contain at any one time seven, plus or minus two, "chunks" of information.
Second, items remain in short-term memory around twenty to thirty seconds.

50. This type of memory increases as children get older…
Short-Term Memory
This type of memory increases as children get older…
…but decreases in old age

51. Activity
Pens and pencils DOWN
Look at the picture
You will have15 seconds

53. Write down the words of all the pictures you can remember.
Short-Term Memory
Write down the words of all the pictures you can remember.
How many objects did you remember?

55. Short-Term Memory
We can only consciously process a very limited amount of information in our short-term memory.

56. Short-Term Memory
We can only consciously process a very limited amount of information in our short-term memory.
Overload your short-term memory? You might forget what you read, ask yourself where you put your briefcase, and ask your phone partner the same thing twice.

57. Short Term or Working Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention; working memory; short-term memory

58. Short-Term Memory Function—conscious processing of information
where information is actively worked on
Capacity—limited (holds 7+/-2 items)
Duration—brief storage (about 30 seconds)
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; memory span; 7 +/- 2 items
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention

59. Maintenance Rehearsal
Mental or verbal repetition of information allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal

61. Long Term Memory

62. Memory – Information Processing
Long-term Memory – the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of memories

63. Long-Term Memory
Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

64. Long-Term Memory Function—organizes and stores information
more passive form of storage than working memory
Unlimited capacity
Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

65. Long-Term Memory
Encoding—process that controls movement from working to long-term memory store
Retrieval—process that controls flow of information from long-term to working memory store
Long-term
memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Sensory
Input
Attention
Encoding
Retrieval
Maintenance Rehearsal
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

66. Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
Automatic processing
Unconscious encoding of information
Examples:
What did you eat for lunch today?
Was the last time you studied during the day or night?
You know the meanings of these very words you are reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of the words?

67. Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
Effortful processing
Requires attention and conscious effort
Examples:
Memorizing your notes for your upcoming Introduction to Psychology exams
Repeating a phone number in your head until you can write it down

68. Types of Long Term Memory
Explicit memory—memory with awareness; information can be consciously recollected; also called declarative memory
Implicit memory—memory without awareness; memory that affects behavior but cannot consciously be recalled; also called nondeclarative memory

69. Discovering Psy 2e Figure 6.5 p.210

70. Short-Term Memory or Working Memory
The ability to hold and manipulate information over a brief period of time. Forgetting can occur rapidly, especially if distracted

71. Short-Term Memory or Working Memory
Short-term memory has two important characteristics.
First, short-term memory can contain at any one time seven, plus or minus two, "chunks" of information.
Second, items remain in short-term memory around twenty to thirty seconds.

72. This type of memory increases as children get older…
Short-Term Memory
This type of memory increases as children get older…
…but decreases in old age

73. Activity
Pens and pencils DOWN
Look at the picture
You will have15 seconds

75. Write down the words of all the pictures you can remember.
Short-Term Memory
Write down the words of all the pictures you can remember.
How many objects did you remember?

77. Short-Term Memory
We can only consciously process a very limited amount of information in our short-term memory.

78. Short-Term Memory
We can only consciously process a very limited amount of information in our short-term memory.
Overload your short-term memory? You might forget what you read, ask yourself where you put your briefcase, and ask your phone partner the same thing twice.

79. Long-Term Memory
A system in the brain that can store vast amounts of information on a relatively enduring basis
The information can be facts you learned a few minutes ago, personal memories that are decades old, or skills learned with practice.

80. Long-Term Memory
The average adult has more than a billion bits of information in memory
Storage capacity of long-term memories has been estimated at million times that (1,000,000 X 1,000,000,000)

81. Retrieval
Retrieval is the process of getting information out of memory storage
You may need to remember exact facts and figures, or you may only need to remember general terms and identifications.

82. Retrieval
Recall – memory is the ability to retrieve exact information learned at an earlier time
IE. Fill in the blank test.
IE. Columbus sailed in the year ________. 6 x 6 = _____. Define retrieval ______ My Social Security number is _______.

83. Retrieval
Recognition – a measure of memory in which a person only needs to identify items previously learned
IE. A multiple-choice test.
IE. Of the following choices, which is the correct answer to 6 x 6 ____. You can’t remember the names of all 400 kids you graduated high school with, but if I show you pictures of them you can remember who you went to school with and who you didn’t.

84. Retrieval
Relearning – the principle that if you’ve learned something and forgot it, you probably will learn the material more easily the second time – therefore, retrieval is easier and quicker as well
IE. Learned to play the guitar and played for five years. Haven’t played in 10 years, but you pick up a guitar and play a few tunes, and with a few lessons you play as well as you did before.

85. Retrieval
Retrieval Cues – clues that provide reminders of information that otherwise would be more difficult to remember; clues that can guide us the where to look for the right answers.

86. Retrieval
Priming – the activation of particular associations in memory; this may be done consciously or unconsciously, purposefully or incidentally

87. Retrieval
IE. Mnemonic clues (Roy G Biv) are primers that allow you to remember information many types of factual information
IE. A “Missing Child” poster makes you think about your own abduction as a child
IE. The color red prompts memories of days on your grandfathers farm, with its big red barn
IE. The first letter of each vocabulary word is provided on your test.

88. Retrieval Cues
Context Effects – the tendency to remember information better and more accurately when you are in a physical setting that is similar to the one that you learned the information in the first place

89. Retrieval Cues
Mood-Congruent – along with the state-dependent theory, our moods bias our memories also (we remember things better when we are in the same mood as when the memory was formed)
IE. You had a fantastic 5th birthday party, with lots of friends, gifts, clowns, etc. BUT, you had a cold that day and were sad. Your memory of your 5th birthday party may be that it was long, dreary, and sad.

90. Retrieval Cues
State-Dependent Theory – what we learn in one physical state – such as drunk or sober – is sometimes more easily recalled when we are again in that same state

91. Retrieval Cues déjà vu – “Already Seen” (French)
The eerie sense that “I’ve been in this exact situation before”
Paranormal Explanation – Precognition or Reincarnation?
Memory Explanation – If a situation is loaded with clues that are similar to ones already in memory, your brain makes similar associations between them

92. Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Improving Memory

93. Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
Retrieval from long-term memory
Depending on interference, retrieval
cues, moods, and motives, some
things get retrieved, some don’t
Long-term storage
Some items are altered or lost
Short-term memory
A few items are both noticed
and encoded
Sensory memory
The senses momentarily register
amazing detail
Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
key words: forgetting

94. Retrieval Failures
Repression - a basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories
People can knowingly, or unknowingly, revise their own histories

95. Retrieval Failures
Tip-Of-The-Tongue Experience – the inability to get a bit of information that you’re absolutely certain is stored in your memory – the information is very close, but just out of reach

96. Medical Memory Loss Amnesia – severe memory loss
Retrograde – forget things from the past
Anterograde – inability to form new memories but remember the past
Alzheimers – as plaques build in the brain and interfere with neural transmissions, memories cannot be formed or retrieved

97. False Memories
Source Confusion – arises when the true source of a memory is forgotten, so you create details to fill in the gaps
You actually saw that on tv…
Elizabeth Loftus
Misinformation Effect – a person’s existing memories can be altered if the person is exposed to misleading information
Eyewitness Testimony…How reliable is it?

98. How To Make Memories Last? A Few Suggestions
Focus your attention
Commit the necessary time
Space your study sessions
Organize the information
Elaborate on the material

99. How To Make Memories Last? A Few Suggestions
Use visual imagery and other mnemonics
Explain it to a friend
Reduce Interferences
Since we usually remember the early part and the last part, spend extra time on the middle
Use contextual clues to jog memory