1. Cognition: Memory Chapter 8

2. Cognitive Psychology
Subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes.
Studies on memory, thinking, reasoning, problem solving, language, intelligence, and creativity.
“Cognitive Revolution" initiated by Noam Chomsky s
Trace back to Piaget

3. Count the syllables in 45 Secs.
Reading is to the mind what exercise is to the body.
Brain: an apparatus with which we think that we think.
Nothing fixes a thing so intensely in the memory as the wish to forget it.

5. 10 equations & 20 seconds 6 X 7 15 – 6 13 + 4 3 X 9 16 / 4 19 – 8

7. Memory Memory is any indication that learning has persisted over time.
Our ability to store and retrieve information.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be a stranger to you; every language foreign; every task new; and even you yourself would be a stranger.

8. Take out a piece of paper…..
Name the seven dwarves…..
Now name them…..

9. Was it easy or hard? It depends on several things….
If you like Disney movies?
When was the last time you have seen the movie?
Are people around you being loud so you cannot concentrate?

10. 30 words & 2 minutes circle pilot tubing apple midnight
bread rope pottery mind bell
dog office shape head problem
sister map edge kite flap
coat thunder section brand point
sleigh folder train account wallet

11. The Memory Process Three step process….
1. Encoding: The processing of putting information into the memory system.
2. Storage: The retention of encoded material over time.
3. Retrieval: The process of getting the information out of memory storage.

12. Three Box/Stage Model of Memory Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage model of memory includes a) sensory memory, b) short-term memory, and c) long-term memory

13. Baddeley & Hitch's Model of Working Memory (1974)

14. Encoding Getting Information In
Parallel Processing vs Serial Processing
Automatically Processed–
Space b/w objects, sequence & how often events happen
Effortful Processing –
Novel/ New Info
Requires attention and effort
Preview Question 2: What information do we encode automatically? What information do we encode effortfully, and how does the distribution of practice influence retention?

15. Figure 2

16. The Ways we can Encode…
Visual Encoding: the encoding of picture images.
Acoustic Encoding: the encoding of sound, especially the sounds of words.
Semantic Encoding: the encoding of meaning. (Associate w/ what already know = better recognition later than acoustic or visual alone)
Organizational Encoding: Categorizing / Chunking / Hierarchies

17. Take out a piece of paper and name all the Presidents…

18. Memory & Encoding Effects
Primacy Effect
Recency Effect
Serial Positioning Effect (When your recall is better for first and last items on a list, but poor for middle items)

19. Rehearsal & Spacing Effect
Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition
Hermann Ebbinghaus studied rehearsal by using nonsense syllables: TUV YOF GEK XOZ
We retain information better when we rehearse over time (Spacing Effect)
DO NOT CRAM!!!!!!!!!!!!
Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

20. Rehearsal
Forgetting Curve

21. Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval

22. Storage: Sensory Memory
A split second holding tank for ALL sensory information.
George Sperling’s (1960) research on Iconic Memory – free recall vs cued recall (brief perfect image then discarded)
Echoic Memory

23. The longer the time delay, the greater the memory loss.
Sensory Memory
The longer the time delay, the greater the memory loss. 20 40 60 80
Percent Recognized
0.15
0.30
0.50
1.00
Time (Seconds)

24. The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long

25. Short Term Memory The stuff we encode from the sensory goes to STM.
Events are encoded visually, acoustically or semantically.
Working Memory

26. Why a Working Memory Model?
A newer understanding of short-term memory that involves conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory
Some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically.
Since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and actively process it into our working memory.

27. STM/ Working Memory Capacity
George Miller
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two (1956).
Limited capacity = 7 bits ± 2
Ready?
M U T G I K T L R S Y P
George Miller

28. Ways to remember things in STM…so they go to LTM
Chunking:
Organizing items into familiar,
manageable units.
Acronyms are examples of chunking
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
ROY G. BIP = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Purple
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M

33. Ways to remember things in STM…so they go to LTM
Mnemonic devices
Utilize Vivid Imagery & Organizational Devices to aid memory
Examples = Method of Loci (visualize places) & Peg Word Approach (1 = bun)
Rehearsal
Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally
My Very Earnest Mother Just Served Us Nine Pies

34. Working Memory Duration
Peterson and Peterson (1959) measured the duration of working memory by manipulating rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541 …
CH??
Duration of working memory is about 20 sec.

35. Working Memory Duration

36. Memory Feats – Simon Reinhard & Ben Pridmore -- WMC

37. Long-Term Memory Sensory Memory Working Memory Long-term Memory Events
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval

38. Long Term Memory
Unlimited storehouse of information.
Lasts for Years.

40. Memory Stores Feature Sensory Memory Working Memory LTM Encoding Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years

41. Storing Memories Long-Term Potentiation
Synaptic Enhancement after learning (synaptic plasticity)
long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them synchronously.
In other words…they learn to fire together and get better at it…creating a memory.

42. Storing Memories
Heightened emotions (stress-related or otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Flashbulb memories are clear memories of emotionally significant moments or events

43. Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory = Declarative memories -- facts and experiences that you consciously know and declare.
Implicit memory = Procedural memories & Conditioned learning.

44. Explicit Memories Episodic Memories -- Events
Semantic Memories – Facts & Meaning
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic system that processes explicit memories

45. Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient Henry Molaison (HM) remembered everything before the operation but could not make new memories. We call this anterograde amnesia.
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)

46. Implicit Memories Procedural Memories = Skills Conditioned Memories
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain that processes implicit memories

47. Implicit Memory HM was unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he could form new
memories that were procedural (implicit). C B A
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time he played it, he was unable to remember the fact that he has already played the game.

48. Case of Clive Wearing

49. Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval refers to getting information out of the memory store.
Preview Question7: How do we get information out of memory?

50. Types of Retrieval The capital of France is ______. Recall Recognition
you must retrieve the information from your memory using effort.
fill-in-the blank or essay tests
The capital of France is ______.
you must identify the target from possible targets
multiple-choice tests

51. Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much time (or effort) is saved when learning material for the second time. Relearning Effect
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite …
Silk
Frog
Ring
Original
Trials
Relearning
Trials
1 day later
Saving
X 100
Original
Trials 10 5
X 100 10
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
50%

52. Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of associations. These associations are like anchors that help retrieve memory.
water
smell
hose
Fire Truck
fire
smoke
truck
heat
red

53. Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of associations, you must first activate one of the strands that leads to it. This process is called priming.

56. The Context Matters!!! Context Effect Flashbulb Memories
Mood Congruent Memory
State Dependent Memory

57. Mood-Dependent Memory
We usually recall experiences that are consistent with our current mood.
Emotions, or moods, serve as retrieval cues.
Our memories are mood-congruent.
State-Dependent Memories?

58. Déjà Vu Déjà Vu means “I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience.

59. Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
Encoding Failure - cannot remember what we do not encode
Storage Decay - Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay - Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Preview Question 9: Why do we forget?

60. Forgetting

61. Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin).

62. Getting a new bus number and forgetting old bus number.
Interference
Retroactive Interference: new information blocks out old information.
Proactive Interference: old information blocks out new information.
Calling your new girlfriend by old girlfriend’s name.

64. Motivated Forgetting People unknowingly revise their memories.
Repression: A defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness.
Sigmund Freud

65. Constructive Memory Memories are not always what they seem.
Source Amnesia
Elizabeth Loftus
A constructed memory is a created memory.
Misinformation effect
Fabricated memories?

66. Misinformation Effect
Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when questioned about the event.
Depiction of the actual accident.

67. Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?

68. Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit).
Eyewitness Accounts?

69. Improving Memory
Rehearsal -- study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
Spacing Effect -- spend more time rehearsing or actively thinking about the material.
Semantic Ecoding -- make material personally meaningful.
Chunk material – Acronyms
Use mnemonic devices:
peg words
make up a story
Preview Question 12: How can an understanding of memory contribute to more effective study techniques?

70. Improving Memory
6. Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate the situation and mood.
7. Recall events while they are fresh — before you encounter misinformation.
8. Minimize interference:
Test your own knowledge.
Rehearse and then determine what you do not yet know.