AP Chemistry Unit 1 Matter.

AP Chemistry Unit 1 Matter

Things you need to know Atom Proton Neutron
Smallest unit of an element Made from protons, neutrons, and electrons Proton Positive charge In nucleus Mass = 1 amu Neutron No charge Similar to number of protons in smaller atoms Up to 1.5 times number of protons in larger atoms

Things you need to know Electron Atomic Number Mass Number
Negative charge Orbits nucleus Equal to number of protons in neutral atom Mass = 1/1800 amu Atomic Number Number of protons Defines the element Mass Number Sum of protons and neutrons Always whole number

Things you need to know Isotope (Average) Atomic Mass Ion Same element
Different number of neutrons (Average) Atomic Mass Weighted average Based on abundance Ion Imbalance of protons and electrons ONLY electrons are added or removed Excess protons = positive Excess electrons = negative

Molar Mass (molecular weight)
Things you need to know Molecule Two or more atoms Neutral Covalently bonded Molar Mass (molecular weight) Mass of one mole of Molecules if covalent Formula unit if ionic

Things you need to know Pure Substance Mixture
Uniform, consistent properties Contains only one thing Element Compound Mixture Physical combination of two or more substances Properties may vary within a sample or from sample to sample

Things you need to know Compounds Binary Compounds
Two or more elements Bonded chemically Covalent Ionic Binary Compounds Exactly two elements May contain more than one atom of each

Law of Conservation of Mass
Things you need to know Law of Conservation of Mass Amount of matter (mass) remains constant Applies to physical and chemical changes Law of Definite Proportions Elements combine in simple, whole-number ratios A compound always contains elements in the same ratio

Chemical Formulas Part I – Ionic Find charge of both ions
Always positive ion first, negative second Crossover the MAGNITUDE of the charges to become subscripts Reduce if possible

Chemical Formulas Part II – Covalent Must be given name
Use subscripts as directed by prefixes

Always positive ion first, negative second
Naming compounds Part I – Ionic Always positive ion first, negative second Metal – Nonmetal Metal – Polyatomic Ion Polyatomic Ion – Nonmetal Polyatomic Ion – Polyatomic Ion

The positive ion is named first and never changed
Naming compounds Part I – Ionic The positive ion is named first and never changed The negative ion is second If it is a polyatomic ion it is left unchanged For nonmetals, the ending is changed to –ide Ionic Formulas must be reduced if possible

For metals with more than one possible charge
Naming compounds Part I – Ionic For metals with more than one possible charge Most transition metals except Cadmium Scandium Silver Zinc Tin, Lead, and Bismuth A Roman numeral equal to the metal’s charge must be used

The use of –ic and –ous in naming ionic compounds is outdated but still common
The suffix –ic is used for the higher of two common charges and –ous with the lower They are used in conjunction with Latin names

Na2SO4 sodium sulfate Ca(MnO4)2 calcium permanganate FeCl3 iron(III) chloride or ferric chloride AgNO3 silver nitrate SnCO tin(II) carbonate or stannous carbonate LiClO lithium hypochlorite Hg2(IO3)2 mercury(I) iodate or mercurous iodate ZnF2 zinc fluoride BiP bismuth(III) phosphide (NH4)3PO ammonium phosphate Cu2Cr2O7 copper(I) dichromate or cuprous dichromate

Part II – Covalent (Inorganic)
Naming compounds Part II – Covalent (Inorganic) Composed of two nonmetals (or metalloids) They follow the order: B, Ge, Si, C, Sb, As, P, N, H*, Po, Te, Se, S, At, I, Br, Cl, O, F *Any compound that starts with hydrogen is an acid The ending of the second is changed to –ide A numeric prefix is used anywhere there is a subscript

Naming compounds Part II – Covalent (Inorganic) Mono- is used for the second element, if there is not subscript Other prefixes: 2 – di-, 3 – tri-, 4 – tetra-, 5 – penta-, 6 – hexa-, 7 – hepta-, 8 – octa-, 9 – nona-, 10 – deca-

CO2 carbon dioxide PF5 phosphorus pentafluoride N2O5 dinitrogen pentoxide BrCl bromine monochloride SiCl4 silicon tetrachloride

Part III – Covalent (Organic)
Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic) Compounds of Carbon, Hydrogen (usually), and other nonmetals Prefixes for number of carbons Meth- Eth- Prop- But- Pent- Hex- Hept- Oct- Non- Dec-

Propane Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic) Alkanes
CnH2n+2 All single bonds H− H | C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H −H Propane

H− H | C | | −H 3-methyl heptane Naming compounds
Part III – Covalent (Organic) Alkanes H− H | C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H − | C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H −H H− H | C | | −H 3-methyl heptane

H− H | C | | −H

ALKANES Formula Name State CH4 Methane Gas C2H6 CH3CH3 Ethane C3H8 CH3CH2CH3 Propane C4H10 CH3(CH2)2CH3 Butane C5H12 CH3(CH2)3CH3 Pentane Liquid C6H14 CH3(CH2)4CH3 Hexane C7H16 CH3(CH2)5CH3 Heptane C8H18 CH3(CH2)6CH3 Octane C9H20 CH3(CH2)7CH3 Nonane C10H22 CH3(CH2)8CH3 Decane C11H24 CH3(CH2)9CH3 Undecane C12H26 CH3(CH2)10CH3 Dodecane C13H28 CH3(CH2)11CH3 Tridecane C14H30 CH3(CH2)12CH3 Tetradecane C15H32 CH3(CH2)13CH3 Pentadecane C16H34 CH3(CH2)14CH3 Hexadecane C17H36 CH3(CH2)15CH3 Heptadecane C18H38 CH3(CH2)16CH3 Octadecane Solid C19H40 CH3(CH2)17CH3 Nonadecane C20H42 CH3(CH2)18CH3 Eicosane

2-Pentene Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic) Alkenes
CnH2n One double bond H− H | C | H − C | H = C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H −H 2-Pentene

ALKENES Formula Name N/A Methene? C2H4 Ethene C3H6 Propene C4H8 Butene C5H10 Pentene C6H12 Hexene C7H14 Heptene C8H16 Octene C9H18 Nonene C10H20 Decene

2-Hexyne Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic) Alkynes
CnH2n–2 One triple bond H− H | C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H − C ≡ C − H | C | H −H 2-Hexyne

ALKYNES Formula Name N/A Methyne? C2H2 Ethyne C3H4 Propyne C4H6 Butyne C5H8 Pentyne C6H10 Hexyne C7H12 Heptyne C8H14 Octyne C9H16 Nonyne C10H18 Decyne

Ethanol or ethyl alcohol
Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic) Alcohols One hydrogen is replaced by a hydroxyl group (OH) General form ROH H− H | C | H − H | C | H −OH Ethanol or ethyl alcohol

methyl propyl ether Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic)
An oxygen in the carbon chain General form ROR´ H− H | C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H −O− H | C | H −H methyl propyl ether

methyl ethyl ketone Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic)
An oxygen attached to an interior carbon General form RC(꞊O)R´ H− H | C | H − H | C | H − O ‖ C | H − H | C | H −H methyl ethyl ketone

ethyl butyl ester Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic) Ester
An oxygen in the carbon chain AND one attached to an adjacent carbon General form RC(꞊O)OR´ H− H | C | H − H | C | H − O ‖ C | H −O− H | C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H − H | C | H −H ethyl butyl ester

Propanal or propyl aldehyde Naming compounds
Part III – Covalent (Organic) Aldehyde An oxygen on the end of the carbon chain General form RC(꞊O)H H− H | C | H − H | C | H − O ‖ C −H Propanal or propyl aldehyde

Ethanoic acid or Acetic acid Naming compounds
Part III – Covalent (Organic) Acid A carboxyl group (COOH) on a carbon General form RC(꞊O)OH H− H | C | H − O ‖ C −OH Ethanoic acid or Acetic acid

Part III – Covalent (Organic) Cyclic hydrocarbons
Naming compounds Part III – Covalent (Organic) Cyclic hydrocarbons Carbon ring consisting of four or more carbons Benzene is very common

Benzene is commonly shown as
Or without the Hydrogens

Binary acids: hydrogen and one other element
Naming compounds Part IV – Acids Binary acids: hydrogen and one other element Naming: hydro + name of element ending changed to –ic Oxyacids: hydrogen and a polyatomic ion Naming: Name of polyatomic ion with –ate changed to –ic and –ite changed to –ous.

Compounds with common names
H2O NH3 NaHCO3 1 C = form- 2 C = acet-

Polyatomic ions The –ate suffix can mean 3 or 4 oxygens Four oxygens on the “outside” (period 2 and group 17) Three oxygens on the “inside” (everywhere else) The prefix hypo- only goes with –ite and means one less oxygen The prefix per- only goes with –ate and means one more oxygen

Charges of polyatomic ions
Ammonium only positive one All are -1 except Sulfur, carbon, and chromium (-2) Phosphorus and boron (-3)

-ate suffix -ite suffix Per- prefix Hypo- prefix
IA IIA IIIA IVA VA VIA VIIA VIIIA 2 BO 3 3− CO 3 2− NO 3 − 3 IIIB IVB VB VIB VIIB ← VIIIB → IB IIB SiO 4 4− PO 4 3− SO 4 2− ClO 3 − 4 VO 4 3− CrO 4 2− MnO 4 − GeO 4 4− AsO 4 3− SeO 4 2− BrO 3 − 5 MoO 4 2− SnO 4 4− SbO 4 3− TeO 4 2− IO 3 − 6 WO 4 2− PbO 4 4− 7 -ate suffix 3 oxygens for elements in period 2 and group 17 (VIIA) 4 oxygens for all other elements -ite suffix One less oxygen that the corresponding –ate Same charge as the –ate ion Per- prefix One more oxygen that the corresponding –ate Always goes with –ate suffix Hypo- prefix One less oxygen that the corresponding –ite Always goes with the –ite suffix

Charges of monatomic ions
Most s and p block elements are predictable from family Except for first and last columns of d block, lots of variety

Solubility Rules The following rules should be applied in order! All Na+, K+, Li+ and NH4+ salts are soluble. All NO3-, C2H3O2-, ClO3-, and ClO4- salts are soluble. All Ag+, Pb2+, and Hg22+ salts are insoluble. All Cl-, Br-, and I- salts are soluble. Group IIA S2- and Ca-Ba hydroxides are soluble. All SO42- salts are soluble; Ca-Ba sulfates are insoluble. R.O.T. - If its not listed above, assume it to be insoluble.

Solubility #2 N/A Fe3(PO3)2 ZnSO3 CuF BaSO4 Al(OH)3 Ni(OH)2 CaSO4
Sr(NO2)2 Ag3PO3 Ag2SO4 Al(NO2)3 PbCrO4

Net Ionic Equations H2S + Cd2+  CdS + H+ HCl + MnS  H2S + MnCl2
Reactant side = 4 points; Product side = 3 points; If formulas on a side are correct, but one or more charges are incorrect –1 H2S + Cd2+  CdS + H+ HCl + MnS  H2S + MnCl2 OH– + Mg2+  Mg(OH)2 Cu2+ + SO42– + Ba2+ + OH–  Cu(OH)2 + BaSO4 Co2+ + OH–  Co(OH)2 OH– + Al3+ Al(OH)3 Ni2+ + S2– NiS I– + Pb2+  PbI2 H2S + Hg2+  HgS + H+ Ag+ + CrO42–  Ag2CrO4 Mn2+ + S2–  MnS Ba2+ + OH– + Fe3+ + SO42–  BaSO4 + Fe(OH)3 PO43– + Zn2+  Zn3(PO4)2 H2S + Pb2+  PbS + H+

Net Ionic Equations Reactant side = 4 points; Product side = 3 points; If formulas on a side are correct, but one or more charges are incorrect –1 Mn2+ + NO2– → Mn(NO2)2 OH– + Cd2+ → Cd(OH)2 H2S + Ag+ → Ag2S + H+ Na2S + Al3+ → Na+ + Al2S3 SO42– + Ba2+ → BaSO4 Al2(SO4)3 + Ca2+ + OH– → Al(OH)3 + CaSO4 AgNO3 + Br– → AgBr + NO3– CrCl3 + S2– → Cr2S3 + Cl– Cu2+ + ClO2– → Cu(ClO2)2 HCl + Pb2+ → PbCl2 + H+ SO42– + Ag+ → Ag2SO4 Ba(OH)2 + Zn2+ → Ba2+ + Zn(OH)2 OH– + Ti4+ → Ti(OH)4 HI + Pb2+ → PbI2 + H+ PO43– + Sr2+ → Sr3(PO4)2

Chemical Formulas Ag2SO4(s) + 2KCl(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + K2SO4(aq)
Reactant side = 4 points; Product side = 4 points; Balancing = 2 points; States = 1 point each Ag2SO4(s) + 2KCl(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + K2SO4(aq) 2Fe(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g) 2HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + Ca(NO3)2(aq) PbO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → PbCl4(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) 2TiO(s) + 2F2(g) → 2TiF2(s) + O2(g) C8H20(l) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g) 3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g) 2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) → 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(g) 2NH4MnO4(aq) + CuCl2(aq) → 2NH4Cl(aq) + Cu(MnO4)2(s)

Significant Figures or Significant digits (sigfigs)
All nonzero digits are significant All zeroes on the left end of a number are NEVER significant; only placeholders All zeroes in the middle of a number are ALWAYS significant; never placeholders Zeroes on the right end of a number are SOMETIMES significant If a decimal is present (anywhere) they are significant If decimal is understood, they are placeholders A bar is placed over the last significant zero when some but not all are significant

Significant Figures or Significant digits (sigfigs)
When multiplying or dividing numbers, the answer should have as many sigfigs as the least accurate number involved When adding or subtracting, the answer can only go as far to the right as the least accurate number

= 235.7 240

Density is mass per unit volume
𝐷= 𝑚 𝑉 Common units are kg/L, g/ml, or g/cm3 1 ml ≡ 1 cm3

When most substances are heated they expand
Therefore, density decreases with temperature

Solid Liquid Gas Definite volume Definite shape No definite shape
No definite volume

Base units are fundamental
Time Length Mass Temperature Derived units are formed from a combination of fundamental units Volume Energy

Accuracy is how well a set of readings agree with reality
Precision is how well a set of readings agree with one another

Metals Nonmetals Metalloids Good conductors of heat and electricity
Left of the staircase on the periodic table (+Al & Po) Nonmetals Nonconductors of electricity Poor conductors of heat Right of the staircase on the periodic table (+At) Metalloids Semiconductors Along the staircase

Metallic character and conductivity are greatest on the left side of the periodic table and decrease to the right

Indicators of a chemical change
Color change Formation of a gas (bubbling) Formation of a precipitate (solid) Release or absorption of energy (change in temperature)

Anything that does not produce ions in water in a nonelectrolyte
A compound that conducts electricity when dissolved in water is known as an electrolyte When ionic compounds dissolve the ions dissociate A few molecular compounds ionize (form ions) upon dissolving Anything that does not produce ions in water in a nonelectrolyte

Temperature is the average kinetic energy of the particles in a substance
The kinetic energy is directly proportional to the absolute temperature (Kelvin) 𝐾= 1 2 𝑚 𝑣 2

Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution

What happens to the distribution of speeds as temperature increases?

When atoms/molecules come into contact, they transfer thermal energy (heat)
Energy flow from the particle with more energy to the particle with less There is a NET flow of heat from the warmer object to the cooler There will be a net flow of heat until equilibrium is reached If heat flows into a system it is endothermic If heat flows out of a system it is exothermic

Types of chemical equations
Molecular Ionic Net ionic

Molecular equations show all species involved as compounds and may or may not list state
Aqueous barium nitrate is mixed with a solution of potassium sulfate forming barium sulfate and potassium nitrate Ba NO 𝑎𝑞 + K 2 SO 4 𝑎𝑞 →Ba SO 4 𝑠 +K NO 3 𝑎𝑞

Ionic equations show all species involved as they actually exist and may or may not list state
Aqueous barium nitrate is mixed with a solution of potassium sulfate forming barium sulfate and potassium nitrate Ba 𝑎𝑞 NO 3 𝑎𝑞 − +2 K 𝑎𝑞 + + SO 4 𝑎𝑞 2− →Ba SO 4 𝑠 +2 K 𝑎𝑞 NO 3 𝑎𝑞 −

Net equations show all species that actually react, as they actually exist, and may or may not list state Aqueous barium nitrate is mixed with a solution of potassium sulfate forming barium sulfate and potassium nitrate Ba 𝑎𝑞 NO 3 𝑎𝑞 − +2 K 𝑎𝑞 + + SO 4 𝑎𝑞 2− →Ba SO 4 𝑠 +2 K 𝑎𝑞 NO 3 𝑎𝑞 − Ba 𝑎𝑞 SO 4 𝑎𝑞 2− →Ba SO 4 𝑠

Molecular equations provide a general overview of what is present before and after the reaction
Ionic equations a more specific and show what is actually reacting Net ionic equations remove all spectator ions and very specifically show where the action is!

Balancing equations Trial and Error Work from simple to complex
For lone elements, use fractional coefficients if necessary, then multiply by the denominator

1) Ag2SO4(s) + 2KCl(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + K2SO4(aq)
Grading rules: 1 point for each formula (4 total) 1 point for each phase (4 total) 2 points for the correct coefficients 1) Ag2SO4(s) + 2KCl(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + K2SO4(aq) 2) 2Fe(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g) 3) 2HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → 2H2O(ℓ) + Ca(NO3)2(aq) 4) PbO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → PbCl4(s) + 2H2O(ℓ) 5) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(ℓ) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

6) 2 TiO 𝑠 +2 F 2 𝑔 ∆ 2 TiF 2 𝑠 + O 2 𝑔 7) C8H20(ℓ) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g) 8) 3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g) 9) 2H2S(g) + 3O2(g) → 2SO2(g) + 2H2O(g) 10) 2NH4MnO4(aq) + CuCl2(aq) → 2NH4Cl(aq) + Cu(MnO4)2(aq)

15) Ca3(PO3)2(s) + 3Na2SO4(aq) → 3CaSO4(s) + 2Na3PO3(aq) (4)
16) 2C6H14(l) + 19O2(g) → 12CO2(g) + 14H2O(l) (4) 17) 2HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → 2H2O(l) + Ca(NO3)2(aq) (4) 18) 3CO2(g) + 2Fe(s) → 3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) (4) 19) hexane (2) 20) hydrogen carbonate or carbonic acid or bicarbonate (2) 21) calcium bromide (2) 22) nickel(II) chloride (2) 23) Manganese(II) oxide (2) 24) selenium hexafluoride (2) 25) boric acid or hydrogen borate (2) 26) barium hydride (2) 27) butyne (2) 28) zinc sulfide (2)

29) (a) (1 each) (b) (1 each) (c) (1 each) (d) (1 each) (e) (1 each) 30) (a) S (b) I (c) S (d) S (1 each) (e) I (f) I (g) S (h) S (1 each) (i) S (j) I (k) I (l) S (1 each)

A solution is a homogeneous mixture
The most common unit for concentration is molarity (M) 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦= 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Mg 23.278 O 45.99 ? 30.732 B 2.8244 1 P 0.9922 As 0.4102 2.3 Cl 0.8668 1.1 Br 0.3846 2.5 I 0.2422 4 S 0.9586

AP Chemistry Unit 1 Matter.

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