Thinking, Memory, & Intelligence

Thinking, Memory, & Intelligence
More Cognitive Psychology

Cognition Cognition The broad mental capacities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating Developed into the field of cognitive psychology In order to think about things in our world we simplify them by creating Concepts Prototypes

Simplifying our Thinking
Concept A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people Ex.Chair: Ex. Flower: The development of concepts are assisted by the development of prototypes Prototype Mental image or best example of a category; helps to make quick and easy assessment of items Ex: Birds….which fits better, a robin or a penguin?

Problem Solving Problem Solving:
Refers to the active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable Problem Space refer to the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver Aka. approaches to problem solving

Approaches to Problem Solving
Trial and Error Trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works Algorithm a logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem in a step-by-step manner; slower than what is known as heuistics Heuristic A simple strategy that allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; faster than algorithm but causes more errors; rule of thumb

Approaches to Problem Solving
Forming Sub-goals Working backward Searching for Analogies Changing the Representations of the Problem Taking a Break Incubation Effect: occurs when new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem These first 4 are all forms of a heuristic. Subgoal: break down your goal into small steps. Tower of Hanoi Working Backward: If you have a problem that has a clear endpoint, sometimes it is better to work backwards Lili Pads and Pond Illustration Searching For Analogies: Changing Representativeness:

Problems to Problem Solving
Irrelevant Information Confirmation Bias A tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions Fixation the inability to see a problem from a new perspective; an impediment to problem-solving Ex. Mental set- people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past Ex. Functional fixedness- tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use

Overconfidence The tendency to be more confident than correct; over-estimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs & judgments Framing The way an issue is posed or presented can significantly affect decisions & judgments Ex. Success rate for surgery; Drop-off prices

Unnecessary Constraints Ex. Nine dot problem Insight: helps overcome these constraints when people suddenly discover the correct solution to a problem after struggling with it for a while

Belief Bias The tendency of ones’ pre-existing beliefs to distort logical reasoning, sometimes by making invalid conclusions seem valid and valid conclusions seems invalid Belief Perseverance Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited Ex. Capital punishment research; firefighter study

Decision Making Decision making: involves evaluating alternatives and making choices among them Theory of Bounded Rationality: asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in “irrational” decisions that are less than optimal

Decision Making Risky decision making: involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty Conjunction fallacy: occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone

Decision Making Representative Heuristic Availability Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they represent or match a prototype; may cause to ignore other relevant information Ex. The Stranger: professor or truck driver Availability Heuristic Estimating likelihood of things based upon the availability in our memory or that quickly come to mind so we deem them common

Language The most tangible or hard evidence of our thinking power is language Language Our spoken, written, or signed words and the rules we use combine them to communicate meaning Lot of research completed by Chomsky

Language Phonemes- the smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually Morphemes & Semantics: Morphemes: the smallest units of meaning in a language Semantics: area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and word combinations Syntax- a system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences

Language Development This development is gradual and moves from simple to complex; however by 4 months infants can read lips and discriminate speech sounds they prefer to look at faces in which the sounds match First stage: Babbling Stage At 3-4 mths infants spontaneously utter various sounds that are at first unrelated to household language

Language Development One-word Stage:
Over time infants begin to lose their ability to discriminate sound they never hear… -which is why it is easier to learn a second language at a young age, because we lose the ability to discriminate the unique sounds not used in our native language but in the language of others’ One-word Stage: At 1-2 years, a child begins to speak mostly in single words Usually only contain one syllable like ma or da but gradually conforms to family language

Language Development Fast mapping: process by which children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure Overextensions: when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant Underextensions: when a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to

Language Development Two-Word Stage:
Begins about 2 years and is when children speak in mainly 2-word phrase Stage also known for telegraphic speech: speaking like a telegram “ go car” and using mostly nouns and verbs Overrgeneralizations: when grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply Use the chart on page 316 to help you remember the stages! 

Language Development Bilingualism
Acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules

With a Partner… Analyze the different theories as to how language develops…. Skinner (behaviorists) Chomsky (Nativist) LAD: innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language Cognitive neuorscientists (interactionists)

Impact of Language Linguistic Determinism/Relativity
Whorf’s hypothesis that language determines the way that we think English have a lot of vocabulary words that focus on the self; Japanese have more about societal emotional terms in comparison to the West Do we refer to females as “girls” or “woman” Yet there is plenty of thinking that happens without language, aka….mental pictures, spatial thinking, visualization, etc…..

Chapter 8 Practice Test

1. The 2-year-old child who refers to every four-legged animal as “doggie” is making which of the following errors? a)underextension b)overextension c)overregularization d)underregularization

2. Research suggests that bilingualism has a negative effect on
a) language development b) cognitive development c) metalinguistic awareness d) none of the above

3. Based on the work with Kanzi, which statement best summarizes the current status of the research on whether chimps can learn languages? a) Chimps can acquire the use of symbols but cannot combine them into sentences or learn rules of language. b) Chimps are nearly as well suited for learning and using language as humans. c) Chimps are incapable even of learning the symbols of a language. d) Chimps can learn some basic language skills, but the linguistic capacities of humans are far superior

4. Chomsky proposed that children learn language swiftly:
a) because they possess an innate language acquisition device. b) through imitation, reinforcement, and shaping. c) as the quality of their thought improves with age. d) because they need to in order to get their increasingly complex needs met.

5. The linguistic relativity hypothesis is the notion that:
a) one’s language determines the nature of ones thought. b) one’s thought determines the nature of ones language. c) language and thought are separate and independent processes. d) language and thought interact, with each influencing the other.

6. The nine-dot problem is:
a) often solved suddenly with a burst of insight b) difficult because people assume constraints that are not part of the problem c) solved through fast mapping d) both a and b

7. Problems that require a common object to be used in an unusual way may be difficult to solve because of: a) mental set b) irrelevant information c) unnecessary constraints d) functional fixedness

8. A heuristic is: a) a flash of insight b) a guiding principle or “rule of thumb” used in problem solving or decision making c) a methodical procedure for trying all possible solutions to a problem d) a way of making a compensatory decision

9. Which of the following is not a heuristic used for solving problems?
a) working backward b) fast mapping c) forming subgoals d) searching for analogies

10. According to Nisbett, Eastern cultures tend to favor a(n) _____ cognitive style, whereas Western cultures tend to display a(n) _____ cognitive style a) analytic; holistic b) holistic; analytic c) heuristic; algorithmic d) algorithmic; heuristic

11. The theory of bounded rationality was originally developed by:
a) Herbert Simon b) Noam Chomsky c) Steven Pinker d) Gerd Gigerenzer

12. When you estimate the probability of an event by judging the ease with which relevant instances come to mind, you are relying on : a) an additive decision-making model b) the representativeness heuristic c) the availability heuristic D) a non-compensatory model

13. The belief that the probability of heads is higher after a long string of tails:
a) is rational and accurate b) is an example of the “gambler’s fallacy” c) reflects the influence of the representativeness heuristic d) includes both b and c

14. The tendency to overestimate the probability of events that get heavy media coverage reflects the operation of: a) framing effects b) the representativeness heuristic c) the availability heuristic d) mental set

15. If someone says “Only a congenial pinhead would make that choice,” this use of language would represent: a) confirmation b) syntactic slanting c) anticipatory name calling d) telegraphic speech

MEMORY

WHAT’S IN THIS CHAPTER? (Objectives for this unit)
Essential Questions to be asked: How do we remember things? Why do we forget things? Where do we store memories? Are there different types of memories? Are there memories that last longer than others? Why? Can we have false memories? Can our imagination play tricks on us? How can we improve our memory?

Overview

Memory Memory Flashbulb Memory
persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information Flashbulb Memory a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Based in long-term memory Ex. JFK assassination; 9/11 attack

Memory Memory as Information Processing
similar to a computer write to file: putting info in (encoding) save to computer/jump/external: save file as: (storage) read from computer/jump/external : retrieval: (open file)

Encoding ENCODING the processing of information into the memory system or getting information into memory Typing on a computer keyboard the information you need to keep. Memory code: created by the brain; emphasis on looks, sounds, or meaning

STORAGE Storage: Saving information: where?
The retention of coded information over time Saving information: where? Do I need it temporarily: over a few minutes, days, months? Do I need it for years or the rest of my life? Where do I put the information when I save it?

RETRIEVAL Retrieval: The process of getting information out of memory storage When I save information, how do I get it back out when I need it? Do I remember where I put it? What if it is large pieces of information or just a single word?

Getting Information In
Encoding Effortful Automatic Automatic processing allows us to process two or more complex coding tasks simultaneously & is done without conscious awareness

Encoding Effortful Processing requires attention conscious effort
Spacing and serial position effect Elaboration Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of the encoding Ex. Linking classically conditioned fears to your own fear of spiders Rehearsal repetition of information to maintain it in consciousness to encode it for storage

Encoding Automatic Processing
unconscious encoding of incidental information Space: aware of size of room or distance from something Time: how much time has passed; how long something occurred Frequency: how often something happens well-learned information word meanings YET, we can learn automatic processing reading backwards

Storage: Memory System 3 Components of Memory
Short-term memory is also known as working memory

Different Types of Memory

Sensory memory Sensory Register
acts as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses. I see everything in the room, but I don’t need to pay attention to everything in the room. exists for each sensory channel: iconic memory for visual stimuli, echoic memory for auditory stimuli haptic memory for touch. Info only passes from sensory memory to short-term memory if it catches our attention. the rest is filtered out which is of no interest at a given time.

Sensory Memory Store Capacity - large holds many items at once
Duration - very brief .3 sec for visual info .2 sec for auditory info Function - holds info long enough for basic physical characteristics Receiving room of the memory system Sensory Input Memory Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory

Sperling’s Experiment 1960
Presented matrix of letters for 1/20 seconds Report as many letters as possible Subjects recall only half of the letters Was this because subjects didn’t have enough time to view entire matrix? No How did Sperling know this? Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Note: This slide and the next slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner.

Sperling’s Experiment
Sperling showed people can see and recall ALL the letters momentarily Sounded low, medium or high tone immediately after matrix disappeared tone signaled 1 row to report recall was almost perfect High Medium Low Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: This slide and the previous slide present the basic protocol for Sperling's task - mainly in text form. For instructors who prefer a more visual representation, slides 7-10 present the same protocols in a more schematic manner. Not an afterimage because Sperling showed he could present the letters to one eye and influence the memory by presenting a bright flash to the other eye. This would not have worked if the visual information was stored on the retina.

Sperling’s Iconic Memory Experiment
Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; iconic memory; Sperling Notes: Slides 7-10 present the protocols for the Sperling task in a more schematic manner. Slides 5-6 present the same protocol in a more text oriented fashion.

ICONIC MEMORY Photographic memory
Eyes register an exact representation of a scene Can recall any part of it but only for a few tenths of a second You remember an entire dream; but it fades as you begin to tell it.

Sensory Memory Store Sensory Input Memory forms automatically, doesn’t need your attention or interpretation Only need to attend to the elements we want to use and work with in short-term memory Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; attention

Short-term Memory Working Memory Store (start with S’s memory vignette)
Function - conscious processing Needs your attention! where information is actively worked on Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items) Duration - brief storage (about seconds) Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; memory span; 7 +/- 2 items

Short-term memory Working Memory Capacity: refers to one’s ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention briefly stored information scratch-pad for temporary recall Ex: In order to understand this sentence, you need to hold in your mind the beginning of the sentence as you read the rest. Short-term memory decays rapidly!!

Change purse theory (Miller 1976)
Small: limited capacity 7-10 items Keeps essential info like a change purse Different sized pieces of info. Chunking of information increases short-term memory capacity and is the organization of info into meaningful units a hyphenated phone number is easier to remember than a single long number. formation of a chunk: known as closure. Diff. size chunks Interference: can cause disturbance in S-T-M retention. accounts for desire to complete tasks held in short- term memory as soon as possible.

SCHOOL

Chunking Grouping small bits of information into larger units of information expands working memory load Which is easier to remember? Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; chunking

Working Memory Store What happens if you need to keep information in working memory longer than 20 seconds? To demonstrate, memorize the following phone number (presented one digit at a time)... 8 5 7 9 1 6 3 Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory Notes: This demonstration will present one number at a time, spaced one second apart. After the first two lines of text appear, hit enter once to start the number sequence. The remaining number will appear automatically. You do not need to hit again enter once the first number appears.

857-9163 Working Memory Store What is the number?
The number lasted in your working memory longer than 30 seconds So, how were you able to remember the number? Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory

Rehearsal Mental or verbal repetition of information: aka REPETITION ROTE REHEARSAL Allows information to remain in working memory longer than the usual seconds Maintenance rehearsal Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal Sensory Memory Working or Short-term Memory Attention Sensory Input

Maintenance Rehearsal
What happens if you can’t use maintenance rehearsal? Memory decays quickly To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number (presented one digit at a time) BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by twos (i.e., 1000, 998, 996 … etc.) Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; short-term memory; working memory; maintenance rehearsal Notes: This demonstration represents what occurs if students do not have the opportunity to rehearse the information. First, the sequence of numbers will appear. (Important note: instruct students before the number sequence begins that as soon as the final number is presented, they should immediately start counting backwards by seven from 1000). The slide will present one number at a time, spaced one second apart. After the first five lines of text appear, hit enter once to start the number sequence. The remaining numbers will appear automatically. You do not need to hit again enter once the first number appears. 6 2 8 5 9 4 However, if you’ve already learned the information and you use rehearsal, it solidifies retention and is called OVERLEARNING

628-5094 Working Memory Store What is the number?
Without rehearsal, memory fades Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention

Short-Term Memory Test

Peterson’s STM Task Test of memory for 3-letter nonsense syllables
Participants count backwards for a few seconds, then recall Without rehearsal, memory fades Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; sensory memory; short-term memory; working memory; attention; maintenance rehearsal; Peterson

STORAGE SHORT TERM summary
Encoding from sensory starts as these 3 before going into STM? How do we make room for other info and still keep needed info in STM?

Long Term Memory Bank

Long-term memory intended for storage of information over a long time; basically unlimited capacity Information from the working memory is transferred to it after a few seconds. Unlike in working memory, there is little decay.

Attention to important
Getting Information In to long-term memory! Encoding External events Sensory memory Short-term Long-term Sensory input Attention to important or novel information Encoding Retrieving

Enriching Encoding Visual Encoding (Structural)
encoding of picture images Acoustic Encoding (Phonemic) encoding of sound especially sound of words Semantic Encoding encoding of meaning including meaning of words

Enriching Encoding

Enriching Encoding Self-referent encoding: involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant Motivation to Remember: if this is high at the time of encoding it enhances later recall

Encoding Ebbinghaus used nonsense syllables Spacing Effect
TUV ZOF GEK WAV the more times practiced on Day 1, the fewer repetitions to relearn on Day 2 Spacing Effect distributed practice yields better long- term retention than massed practice

SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
Tendency to recall best the first or last items in a list TWO TYPES PRIMACY EFFECT: better recall of first few items (right after learning) RECENCY EFFECT: better recall of last few items (later after learning)

Encoding: Serial Position Effect
12 Percentage of words recalled 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Position of word in list 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 Serial Position Effect -tendency to recall first & the last items in a list

Enriching Encoding Imagery Mnemonics aka. Mnemonic device
mental pictures a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with semantic encoding Mnemonics aka. Mnemonic device memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Enriching Encoding Acrostics: phrases (for poems) in which the first letter of each word (or line) function as a cue to help you recall Acronym: a word formed out of the first letters of a series of words Rhymes Link Method: involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together Method of Loci: taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations

Memory Aids “Peg Words”
Nun Shoe Tree Door Beehive 6. Sick 7. Heaven Gate Wine Lion’s Den

Enriching Encoding Chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units like horizontal organization often occurs automatically use of acronyms HOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior ARITHMETIC--A Rat In Tom’s House Might Eat Tom’s Ice Cream

Enriching Encoding We also use Hierarchies to encode
complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories Encoding (automatic or effortful) Imagery (visual Encoding) Meaning (semantic Organization Chunks Hierarchies

Explicit Implicit Non-declarative

Long-term Memory Systems
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; episodic memory; semantic memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

Explicit Memory Explicit Memory: memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare.” also called declarative memory - the hippocampus plays a critical role in this type of memory

Subtypes of Explicit Memory
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; episodic memory; semantic memory

2 Types of Long-Term Explicit memory:
Episodic memory of events and experiences from this memory we can reconstruct the actual events that took place at a given point in our lives. Semantic memory: record of facts, concepts and skills that we have acquired. is derived from episodic memory: we can learn new facts or concepts from our experiences.

Explicit Memory describe the picture below using the two sub-types: semantic and episodic Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory;

Episodic Memory Memory tied to your own personal experiences Examples:
what did you have for dinner? do you like to eat caramel apples? Why are these explicit memories? Because you can actively declare your answers to these questions Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; episodic memory

Semantic Memory Memory not tied to personal events
General facts and definitions about the world Examples: who was George Washington? what is a cloud? what is the climate at the north pole? These are explicit memories because you can describe what you know about them. Unlike episodic memories, your knowledge does NOT include your personal experience i.e., You may never have been to the north pole but do know about it. Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; declarative memory; semantic memory

Implicit Memory Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

Implicit Also known as non-declarative; retention
independent of conscious recollection aka. procedural memory Linked to the cerebellum Three subtypes Classical/operant Procedural Priming

Implicit Memory Influences your thoughts or behavior, but does not enter consciousness Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory;

Classical Conditioning
Studied earlier Ch. 6 learning Implicit because it is automatically retrieved Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory; classical conditioning; priming

Implicit/Procedural Memory
Memory that enables you to perform specific learned skills or habitual responses Examples: Riding a bike How to speak grammatically Tying your shoe laces Why are these procedural memories implicit? Can’t readily describe their contents try describing how to tie your shoes They are automatically retrieved when appropriate Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; procedural memory

Priming Priming is influence of one memory on another
priming is implicit because it does not depend on awareness and is automatic Here is a demonstration Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming Demonstration
Unscramble the following words: O R S E L T E P A K T A L S TSME L O B S O M S ELAF ROSE PETAL STALK STEM BLOSSOM Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming Demonstration
ELAF = ? Why not respond FLEA? Because flower parts were primed (flower power) Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Priming Activation of one or more existing memories by a stimulus
Activation not a conscious decision BUT, can effect subsequent thoughts and actions Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming

Two Types of Priming Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming; perceptual priming

Conceptual Priming The semantic meaning of priming stimulus influences your encoding or retrieval Thought to involve activation of concepts stored in semantic memory Example: Flower power priming demonstration Does not depend on sense modality: pictures can conceptually prime sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming DEMO CONCEPTUAL PRIMING BY SHOWING THE BUNNY ON THE NEXT SLIDE AND THEN SPEAK THE WORD “HAIR” TO THE CLASS AND ASK THEM TO SPELL IT.

Priming across modalities
Look at the picture . When I say a word, write it down. Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; conceptual priming DEMO: SAY THE WORD “HARE’ TO YOUR CLASS AND ASK THEM TO WRITE IT DOWN. MANY WILL WRITE “HARE” ALTHOUGH “HAIR” IS MORE COMMON. Why is the uncommon response produced? PRIMING of a sound by a picture.

When I say a word, write it down

Perceptual Priming Priming enhances ability to identify a test stimulus based on its physical features Making meaning out of a given stimulus Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming What if you were shown the following slide earlier in the lecture? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming Can you identify the fragmented stimulus to the right? Key words: long-term memory; implicit memory; non-declarative memory; priming; perceptual priming

Perceptual Priming

Prospective Vs Retrospective Memory
Prospective memory: Involves remembering to perform actions in the future Retroactive memory: Involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information

Long-term Memory Processes
There are three main activities related to long-term memory: Storage: the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval: process of getting information out of memory Deletion: forgetting information

STORAGE Keeping information in!

Long-Term Memory Store
Once information passes from sensory to working memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

Long-Term Memory Store
Encoding – Elaborate constructive rehearsal: passing info from short term to long-term memory store Retrieval - controls flow of information from long-term to short term memory store Long-term memory Working or Short-term Memory Sensory Input Attention Encoding Retrieval Maintenance Rehearsal Key words: modal model of the mind; stage model of memory; long-term memory; working memory; short-term memory; encoding; retrieval

Long-Term Memory Physical Storage
Explicit Memory hippocampus--neural center in limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage

Explicit Memories Hippocampus

Implicit Memory retention independent of conscious recollection also called procedural memory Brain stem and cerebellum

Amygdala: emotional memories
Damage to amygdala would mean you couldn’t learn and remember fear

Storage: Long-Term Memory
How does storage work? Karl Lashley (1950) rats learn maze Lesioned their cortex Cut sections of their brain out Re-test memory of maze Rats could still run portions of the maze Memory not located in just one spot or area of brain Synaptic changes Long-term Potentiation increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; more learning, more synaptic growth Strong emotions make for stronger memories some stress hormones boost learning and retention

Evidence for Separate Implicit/Explicit Systems
Neurophysiological evidence Patient H.M. life-threatening seizures originating in temporal lobe surgically removed portions of temporal lobe Temporal lobe includes: - hippocampus amygdala Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

Patient H.M. Surgery was effective in reducing seizures
BUT, had other side effects Can remember explicit memories acquired before the surgery e.g., old addresses, normal vocabulary Cannot form NEW explicit memories e.g., remembering the name of someone he met 30 minutes prior cannot name new world leaders or performers can recognize a picture of himself from before his surgery but not from after and doesn’t recognize himself in a mirror Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

Patient H.M. H.M. is almost normal on procedural or implicit memory tasks including priming, classical conditioning, and learning motor skills This shows that explicit memory depends upon the temporal lobes and implicit does not Consolidation: hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory Memories are consolidated in the hippocampal region and then stored in diverse areas of the cortex Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory; H.M.

Hippocampal Damage Deficits in forming new explicit memories
Key words: long-term memory; explicit memory; implicit memory; declarative memory; non-declarative memory Notes: - This slide contains a video clip of a patient with hippocampal damage. Although this clip is not of patient H.M., the subject of this clip also has hippocampal damage. - To activate the clip, click on the video image.

Storing memories in the brain
Ralph Gerard 1953 Trained hamsters to turn right or left to get food Lowered their body temperature until brain’s electrical activity ceased Hamsters revived, brains became active again Would they remember which way to turn? Yes. Long term memories survived the electrical blackout.

Storage to long-term Elaboration
Focus on the meaning of information to encode it into LTM don’t simply repeat items over and over tie item to other info in memory called elaborate constructive rehearsal

Long term storage Which Level is More Effective?
Elaboration leads to better recall than shallow processing Type of Processing Intermediate-Acoustic Deep Shallow - Visual 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 Percent of words recalled

Conceptual Hierarchies Related items form categories Remember list better if presented in categories poorer recall if presented randomly Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization

Types of Mental Associations
Association by contiguity concepts are associated because they occur together in a person’s previous experience Association by similarity concepts with shared properties are associated

Semantic Network Attempt to depict structure of memory as concepts linked by associations Red Fire House Cherry Apple Rose Pear Ambulance Engine Truck Bus Car Flower Violet Hot Pot Stove Pan Pie Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

Semantic Network Links between concepts
common properties provide basis for mental link Shorter path between two concepts = stronger association in memory Activation of a concept starts decremental spread of activity to nearby concepts Also known as the spreading-activation model Key words: memory organization; hierarchical organization; associations; spreading activation model

Semantic Network April prom

Parallel Distributed Processing
PDP system: consists of a large network of interconnected computing units, or nodes, that operate much like neurons PDP models assert that specific memories correspond to particular patterns of activation in these networks Information lies in the strengths of the connections

Are Memories Organized? Let’s put it to the test!
Demonstration: recite the days of the week recite the days of the week in alphabetical order demonstrates that long-term memory is organized not just a random jumble of information How are memories organized? Key words: memory organization

Getting Information Out!
Retrieval

Retrieval Types of information retrieval: Recall in recall, the information is reproduced from memory & needs the fewest retrieval cues Serial Recall: perfect sequential order Random Recall: all info but not in order Recognition presentation of the information provides the knowledge that the information has been seen before. lesser complexity of memory, as information is provided as a cue. M.C. test

Retrieval Relearning (savings) Priming
memory measure that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material a second time Priming activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory brings info to conscious when prompted

Context-Dependent Memory
Improved ability to remember if tested in the same environment as the initial learning environment better recall if tested in classroom where you initially learned info than if moved to a new classroom if learning room smells of chocolate or mothballs, people will recall more info if tested in room with the same smell compared to different smell or no smell at all

Context-Dependent Effects
Compare words learned underwater vs on land Words heard underwater are best recalled underwater Words heard on land are best recalled on land key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; context-dependent effects Notes: This graph refers to a study by Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley (1975). In this study, scuba divers listened to a list of words either while they were on land or while they were underwater. They were later asked to recall as many words as possible. Results indicate that contextual consistency (i.e. land-land or water/water) results in better performance.

Retrieval Cues Encoding Specificity Principle:
10 20 30 40 Water/ land Land/ water Different contexts for hearing and recall Same contexts for hearing and recall Percentage of words recalled Encoding Specificity Principle: The value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code

Context Dependent Effects
Time of day is also important 9 6 12 3 Learn at 3 pm Perform better at 3 pm 9 6 12 3 9 6 12 3 Than 9 pm key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; context-dependent effects

Context Dependent State
Deja Vu (French)--already seen cues from the current situation may subconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier similar experience The eerie feeling that "I've experienced this before."

Retrieval Cues State-dependent Memory
what is learned in one state (while one is high, drunk, or depressed) can more easily be remembered when in same state Recall improved if internal physiological or emotional state is the same during testing and initial encoding

State-Dependent Memory
Context vs State dependent Context-dependent - external, environmental factors State-dependent - internal, physiological factors key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; context-dependent effects; state-dependent effects

State-Dependent Effects
Mood-Congruent Memory -Mood or emotions also a factor tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood memory, emotions, or moods serve as retrieval cues Bipolar depressives information learned in manic state, recall more if testing done during manic state information learned in depressed state, recall more if testing done during depressed state key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; state-dependent effects; mood congruence

State Dependent Effects
If drink during learning May recall better with drink Than without key words: forgetting; retrieval; retrieval cues; state-dependent effects Notes: Example of state-dependent effect: A person who hides money while drunk may forget the location until drunk again. For this example, I usually stress that this this is not a call to get drunk before an exam in order to improve your grade. I point out that subjects who are sober at the initial time of learning and during testing do significantly better than those in an intoxicated state. But not as well as sober all the way!

Deletion also called Forgetting

Forgetting Theories Encoding failure Role of time Trace decay
Isolated facts Negative information Completed tasks Interference theories Retrieval failure Motivated forgetting False memories key words: forgetting; encoding; decay theories; interference theories; retrieval cues

Forgetting Forgetting can occur at any memory stage
As we process information, we filter, alter, or lose much of it

Forgetting as Encoding Failure
Information never encoded into LTM X key words: forgetting; encoding

Encoding Failure Demonstrations
What letters accompany the number 5 on your telephone? Where is the number 0 on your calculator? Lincoln penny According to this theory, objects seen frequently, but information is never encoded into LTM key words: forgetting; encoding

Forgetting as Retrieval Failure
Not all forgetting is due to encoding failures Sometimes information IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it Don’t know path to retrieve Don’t access information regularly key words: forgetting; retrieval; long-term memory

Retrieval failure Forgetting can result from failure to retrieve information from long-term memory External events Attention Encoding Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Retrieval Sensory memory Short-term Long-term

Types of Retrieval Failures
Encoding specificity principle: the value of the retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code Transfer-appropriate processing: occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention

Role of Time : Decay Theory
Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused Ebbinghaus forgetting curve over 30 days-- initially rapid, then levels off with time Time plays critical role Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding Problem: Many things change with time. Something else may change and actually cause forgetting: Interference key words: forgetting; retrieval; decay theories

Trace Decay Theory “use it or lose it”

Isolated Facts Most common form of forgetting Grocery lists
Locker combinations Dr. appointments Not tied to significant/emotional material Tid-bit information Witness stand

Negative information Information contrary to our internal belief structure Nonsense information “Jabberwocky” Conflicting information BLUE GREEN PINK

The Stroop Effect

Completed Tasks The “Zeigarnik effect”
Completed tasks more likely to be forgotten than incomplete tasks Completing task takes the information off of the front burner Loses meaning and attention Completed tasks; waiter in restaurant, Math problems

Interference Theories
“Memories interfering with memories” Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory Two types of interference key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories

Two Types of Interference
key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories;retroactive interference; proactive interference

Retroactive Interference
When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference

Retroactive Interference
Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language F- key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; retroactive interference Notes: This is similar to an upcoming slide for proactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference.

Proactive Interference
Opposite of retroactive interference When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car today ? key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; proactive interference

Proactive Interference
Example: Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language F- key words: forgetting; retrieval; interference theories; proactive interference Notes: This is similar to the slide for retroactive interference. The foreign language example can be used to demonstrate both retroactive and proactive interference, depending upon how you present it. Thus, examples of both are included. However, I generally only present only one of the two examples to avoid confusion for the students. For instance, I'll use the foreign language example for retroactive interference and the parking lot example for proactive interference.

Review of Interference Theory
Retroactive Interference Learn A Learn B Recall A, B interferes Proactive Interference Learn A Learn B Recall B, A interferes Interference reflects competition between responses.

Hours elapsed after learning syllables
Forgetting Retroactive Interference Without interfering events, recall is better After sleep After remaining awake Hours elapsed after learning syllables 90% 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Percentage of syllables recalled

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon
Serial scanning Wrong prompt…. Info similar found but not right info needed Scanning information near or around needed information Will continue to scan for info until found

Motivated Forgetting people unknowingly revise memories Repression defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

Unable to store memories
Amnesia--the loss of memory Retrograde amnesia: loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia Anterograde amnesia: loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia Physiological: brain damage; unable to form new memories 1. Oliver Sacks 1985: patient named Jimmy page Myers Describe Jimmy’s case 2. How does amnesia effect explicit and implicit memory?

Hippocampus Damage Left damage: can’t remember verbal info
Right damage: can’t remember visual designs and locations Location of oldest memories Sights, sounds, smells, feels

MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

Source monitoring: making attributions about the origins of memories
Reality monitoring: process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one’s perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one’s thoughts and imagination) Source monitoring: making attributions about the origins of memories Source Amnesia attributing to the wrong source an event that we experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined (misattribution) Source-monitoring error: occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source Destination memory: involves recalling to whom one has told what

Memory Construction Misinformation Effect
We filter information and fill in missing pieces Misinformation Effect incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event; sometimes happens with the questions asked by police

Memory Construction Recall not an exact replica of original events
Recall a construction built and rebuilt from various sources Often fit memories into existing beliefs Eyewitnesses usually see something complex just once then have to remember it Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

Elizabeth Loftus Experiment
Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

Loftus’s Results Speed estimates depended on how the question was phrased Subjects memory for broken glass also depended on the phrasing of the speed question. But this was a false memory: there was no broken glass

Memory Construction Restating the Context of an Event
False Memory Syndrome condition in which a person’s identity and relationships center around a false but strongly believed memory of traumatic experience sometimes induced by well-meaning therapists

A false memory is a memory which is a distortion of an actual experience, or a confabulation of an imagined one. confusing or mixing fragments of memory events, some may have happened at different times but are remembered as occurring together. can involve an error in source memory. treating dreams as if they were playbacks of real experiences. Can be the result of the prodding, leading, and suggestions of therapists and counselors.

Schema Theories Schema - mental representation of an object, scene or event example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc. Scripts - type of schema I could say “I was in class the other day” You would have a mental organization of a classroom script: come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc. Schemas & scripts provide framework for new information

What’s in “Store” for Memory in the Future
More of human memory will move online. Rely more on digital storehouses full of video and audio files of our lives. It'll happen because digital storage is cheap – we also realize how unreliable human memory can be. storehouses will be portable, like today's music for joggers, will provide you with help in remembering people and places.

Memory Extraction: criminal cases, eye witness, Government use
Memory Implants: sensual experiences, travel experiences, languages, top secret information Virtual memories: Rachel is given a first-person memory of a childhood she never had. Can create conflicts between real and virtual childhood if real is not deleted. Interference will occur Quasi-memories: one person's experiential memories are recorded and then implanted into a different person's head. Living an autobiography; Zorro, Jesus Body Switching: our memories in another body/ vise versa Virtual Identity: A facsimile of a human personality could be preserved within a computer program and purchased.

1. Getting information into memory is called _______; getting information out of memory is called________. Storage; retrieval Encoding; storage Encoding; retrieval Storage; encoding

2. The word big is flashed on a screen
2. The word big is flashed on a screen. A mental picture of the word big represents a _________ code; the definition “large in size” represents a _________ code; “sounds like a pig” represents a __________ code. Structural; phonemic; semantic Phonemic; semantic; structural Structural; semantic; phonemic Phonemic; structural; semantic

3. Miles is listening as his mother rattles through a list of 15 or so things that he needs to remember to pack for an upcoming trip. According to George Miller, if Miles doesn’t write the items down as he hears them, he will probably remember: Fewer than 5 items from the list About 10 to 12 items from the list All the items from the list 5 to 9 items from the list

4. Which statement best represents current evidence on the durability of long-term storage?
All forgetting involves breakdowns in retrieval LTM is like a barrel of marbles in which none of the marbles ever leak out There is no convincing evidence that all one’s memories are stored away permanently All long-term memories gradually decay at a constant rate

5. 5. An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event is called a:
Semantic network Conceptual hierarchy Schema Retrieval cure

6. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon:
Is a temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it’s just out of reach Is clearly due to a failure in retrieval Reflects a permanent loss of information from LTM Is both A and B

7. Roberto is telling Rachel about some juicy gossip when she stops him and informs him that she is the one who passed this gossip onto him about a week ago. In this example, Roberto has: Been fooled by the misinformation effect Made a reality-monitoring error Made a source-monitoring error Made a destination memory error

8. In decay theory is correct:
Information can never be permanently lost from long-term memory Forgetting is simply a case of retrieval failure The principal cause of forgetting should be the passage of time All of the above

9. Bulldog McRae was recently traded to a new football team
9. Bulldog McRae was recently traded to a new football team. He is struggling to remember the plays for his new team because he keeps mixing them up with the plays from his previous team. Bulldog’s problem illustrates the operation of: Retroactive interference Proactive interference Transfer-inappropriate processing Parallel distributed processing

10. Research suggests that the consolidation of memories depends of the activity in the:
Cerebellum Prefrontal lobe Medial temporal lobe Corpus callosum

11. Your memory of how to ride a bicycle is contained in your______________ memory.
Declarative Nondeclarative (procedural) Structural Episodic

12. Your knowledge that birds fly, that the sun rises in the east, and that 2+2=4 is contained in your _____ memory. Structural Procedural Episodic semantic

13. Dorothy memorized her shopping list
13. Dorothy memorized her shopping list. When she got to the store, however, she found she had forgotten many of the items from the middle of the list. This is an example of: Inappropriate encoding Retrograde amnesia Proactive interference the serial-position effect

14. Overlearning: Refers to continued rehearsal of material after the point of apparent mastery Promotes improved recall Should not be done, since it leads to increased interference Does both a and b

15. The tendency to mold one’s interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out is called: The overconfidence effect Selective amnesia Retroactive interference The hindsight bias

Homework Questions 1. The tendency for prior learning to inhibit recall of later learning is called a. encoding failure. b. repression. c. retroactive interference. d. proactive interference. 2. Things that are heard are held as a brief __________ in the sensory register. a. echo. b. icon. c. image. d. tactile.

4. Memories outside of conscious awareness are called
3. Twenty years after graduating, a subject is able to correctly identify photographs of students she attended high school with from a larger group of strangers. To do so she has used a. recall. b. recognition. c. eidetic imagery. d. reminiscence. 4. Memories outside of conscious awareness are called a. proactive memories. b. reactive memories. c. explicit memories. d. implicit memories.

a. in the room where you studied. b. in a chemistry laboratory.
5. The image that persists for about one-half second after being seen is a(n) a. sensation. b. echo. c. icon. d. illusion. 6. Cue-dependent (or context dependent) theories of memory suggest that you would do best on your chemistry test if you could be tested a. in the room where you studied. b. in a chemistry laboratory. c. with a large group of chemistry majors. d. with students who share your interests.

7. Memories of historical facts are to __________ memory, as memories of your breakfast this morning are to __________ memory. a. episodic; procedural b. procedural; semantic c. semantic; episodic d. long-term; short-term 8. The fact that a bodily state that exists during learning can be a strong cue for later memory is known as a. eidetic imagery. b. integration. c. state-dependent learning. d. the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.

9. Helen has a six-month "gap" in her memories of grade school
9. Helen has a six-month "gap" in her memories of grade school. Her "gap" corresponds to the period immediately after her father's death. Helen's memory loss is most likely accounted for by a. cue-dependent forgetting. b. repression. c. retroactive inhibition. d. decay of memory traces 10. Memories of historical facts are to __________ memory, as memories of your breakfast this morning are to __________ memory. a. episodic; procedural b. procedural; semantic c. semantic; episodic d. long-term; short-term

15. If someone says “Only a congenial pinhead would make that choice,” this use of language would represent: a) confirmation b) syntactic slanting c) anticipatory name calling d) telegraphic speech

Intelligence What is it? How do we measure it?
How did intelligence testing begin? How does it impact how we view those around us?

Intelligence Tests Intelligence tests
A method for assessing an individual’s mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others, using numerical scores Binet & Simon wanted to test mental age, which is the chronological age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance; average 8 year-old has a mental age of 8. Only intended to identify school children who needed help NOT to measure intelligence and label children Tracking or grouping children according to their intellectual aptitude leads to decreased self-esteem & academic achievement

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test
Re-normed the test and derived what we know as the term IQ Intelligence Quotient (IQ) Mental age/ chronological age x 100 = IQ Intelligence tests no longer derive an IQ but a mental ability score that compares someone’s performance on the test to the average performance of other the same age Ultimately test scores do not just test innate ability, but their education and the culture influences within the test

What is Intelligence? Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations General intelligence (g): a general intelligence factor that Spearman and others believed underlies special mental abilities and is measured by every task on an intelligence test Factor Analysis: a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (factors) on a test; used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlie one’s total score Ex. Verbal and Nonverbal factors

What is Intelligence? Highly debated topic!!!
Several theories of intelligence have developed over time Basically, intelligence is an man-made construct and thus intelligence is defined by how it is measured via the components on the test that is used EX. The importance of thinking and language fits in here!! 

Theories of Intelligence
Multiple Intelligences Howard Gardner Each intelligence is relatively independent of the other 7 types of intelligence Linguistic intelligence involves sensitivity to spoken and written language, the ability to learn languages, and the capacity to use language to accomplish certain goals. This intelligence includes the ability to effectively use language to express oneself rhetorically or poetically; and language as a means to remember information. Writers, poets, lawyers and speakers are among those that Howard Gardner sees as having high linguistic intelligence.

Multiple Intelligences
Logical-mathematical intelligence consists of the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. In Howard Gardner's words, it entails the ability to detect patterns, reason deductively and think logically. This intelligence is most often associated with scientific and mathematical thinking. Musical intelligence involves skill in the performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. It encompasses the capacity to recognize and compose musical pitches, tones, and rhythms. According to Howard Gardner musical intelligence runs in an almost structural parallel to linguistic intelligence. Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence entails the potential of using one's whole body or parts of the body to solve problems. It is the ability to use mental abilities to coordinate bodily movements. Howard Gardner sees mental and physical activity as related.

Spatial intelligence involves the potential to recognize and use the patterns of wide space and more confined areas. Interpersonal intelligence is concerned with the capacity to understand the intentions, motivations and desires of other people. It allows people to work effectively with others. Educators, salespeople, religious and political leaders and counsellors all need a well-developed interpersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence entails the capacity to understand oneself, to appreciate one's feelings, fears and motivations. In Howard Gardner's view it involves having an effective working model of ourselves, and to be able to use such information to regulate our lives. Sternberg agreed with Gardner..but stated only 3 intelligences: Analytical, Creative, & Practical

Savant Syndrome a condition in which a person otherwise limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill, such as computation or drawing Ex. Rain Man This whole concept suggests that intelligence is a diverse set of distinct abilities

Emotional Intelligence
This was first called social intelligence or the know-how to comprehend and manage social situations well Emotional Intelligence The ability to perceive, express, understand, and regulate emotions People are self-aware and not overwhelmed by depression, anxiety, or anger Delay gratification for long-term goals and are not impulsive

Assessing Intelligence
Aptitude Tests A test designed to predict a person’s future performance; aptitude *ex. career assessment, SAT, ACT, GRE Achievement Tests A test designed to assess what a person had learned; current competence * ex. school tests Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale The WAIS is the most widely used intelligence test; contains verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtest

Test Construction Standardization:
Defining meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested “standardization group” These scores typically create a normal distribution that form a normal curve which is the symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes. Most scores fall near the average and fewer and fewer lie near the extremes; bell-shaped pattern Ex. Bell-shaped pattern is generally seen for intelligence

Normal Distribution

IQ Deviation Scores Deviation IQ scores:
Locate subjects precisely within the normal distribution, using the standard deviation as the unit of measurement Devised by David Wechsler and used by most all subsequent tests

Test Construction Reliability
The extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of score on two halves of the test, on alternate forms of the test, or on retesting Test-retest: determining reliability by retesting people with the same test or merely a different form of the test Split-half test: split the test in half and determine if the scores agree Most IQ test have exceptional reliability in the .90

Test Construction Validity
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to. Content validity- the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest (ex. Driver’s test- specific tasks) Predictive validity- test predicts behavior; correlation btwn. test scores the criterion Criterion: behavior that a test is designed to predict Validity of IQ scores are good with academic work but debatable with intelligence in the broader sense

Mental Retardation Mental Retardation (intellectual disability ID)
A condition of limited mental ability, indicated by an intelligence score below 70 and difficulty in adapting to the demands of life (conceptual, social, & practical) Varies from mild to profound About 1% of people meet the criteria More males than females Chart Pg. 363

MILD MODERATE SEVERE PROFOUND

Genetic & Environmental Influences on Intelligence
p Flynn Effect Reaction Range P

Cultural Differences in Intelligence
P

1. Which of the following does not belong with the others?
Aptitude tests Personality tests Intelligence tests Achievement tests

2. If you score at the 75th percentile on a standardized test, it means that:
75% of those who took the test scored better than you did 25% of those who took the test scored less than you 75% of those who took the test scored the same or less than you did You answered 75% of the questions correctly

3. If a test has good test-retest reliability:
There is a strong correlation between items on the test It accurately measures what it says it measures It can be used to predict future performance The test yields similar scores if taken at two different times

4. Which of the following is a true statement regarding Francis Galton?
He took the position that intelligence is largely determined by heredity He advocated the development of special programs to tap the intellectual potential of the culturally disadvantaged He developed tests that identified those children who were unable to profit from a normal education He took the position that intelligence is more a matter of environment than heredity

5. On most modern IQ tests, a score of 115 would be:
About average About 15% higher than the average of one’s agemates An indication of genius One standard deviation above the mean

6. IQ tests have proven to be good predictors of:
Social intelligence Practical problem-solving intelligence School performance All of the above

7. Mr. and Mrs. Proudparents are beaming because their son, little Newton, has been selected for a gifted children program at school. They think Newton is a genius. What sort of advice do they need to hear? Youngsters with a IQ tend to be very maladjusted Most gifted children do not do not go on to make genuis-level, major contributions to society that earn them eminence They should prepare to be famous, based on their parentage of Newton They should be warned that gifted children often have deficits in practical intelligence

8. Which of the following is a true statement about mental retardation/intellectual disability?
Most people with retardation are unable to live normal lives because of their mental deficiencies With special tutoring, a mentally retarded person can attain average intelligence The majority of people who exhibit intellectual disability fall in the mild category Diagnoses of mental retardation should be based exclusively on IQ scores

9. Most school districts consider children who_______ to be gifted.
Have IQ scores above 115 Score in the upper 2%-3% of the IQ distribution Have parents in professional careers Demonstrate high levels of leadership and creativity

10. In which of the following cases would you expect to find the greatest similarity in IQ?
Between fraternal twins Between identical twins Between nontwin siblings Between parent and child

11. Evidence indicating that upbringing affects one’s mental ability is provided by which of the following findings? Identical twins are more similar in IQ than fraternal twins There is more than a chance similarity between adopted children and their biological parents Siblings reared together are more similar in IQ than siblings reared apart Identical twins reared apart are more similar in IQ than siblings reared together

12. Which of the following is a likely consequence of stereotype threat for members of minority groups? Academic motivation declines Academic performance often suffers Standardized tests may underestimate their ability All of the above are likely consequences

13. ______ proposed that there are three facets of intelligence; analytical, practical, and creative intelligence Howard Gardner Arthur Jensen Claude Steele Robert Sternberg

14. When you try to narrow down a list of alternatives to arrive at a single correct answer, you engage in: Convergent thinking Divergent thinking Creativity Insight

15. Nora has a blind date with Nick, who, she’s been told, is considered a true genius by the faculty art department. Now she’s having second thoughts, because she’s always heard that geniuses are a little off their rocker. Does she have reason to be concerned? Yes. It’s been well documented that the stress of creative achievement often leads to schizophrenic systems No. Extensive research on creativity and psychological disorders shows no evidence for any connection Perhaps. There is evidence of a correlation between major creative achievement and vulnerability to mood disorders. Of course not. The stereotype of the genius who’s mentally ill is purely a product of the jealousy of untalented people.

Thinking, Memory, & Intelligence

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