1. Research Methods

2. Method/Experimental design/ethics/sampling techniques
Experiments Correlational analysis Observational techniques Self-report techniques Case studies Define Outline advantages and disadvantages Complete the worksheet

3. Correlations and case studies
quiz

4. Questions - Correlations
What is called when both variables increase? (1)
What is it called when one variable increases and the other variable decreases? (1)
What is the statistic called which shows the strength and direction of the correlation? (1)
Using the following words, estimate the strength and direction of these scores (weak, moderate, strong, perfect, positive, negative, no) (7)
b) c) d) e) 0 f) -1 g) -0.95
5) Give two advantages of using correlational research in Psychology (2)
6) Give two disadvantages of using correlational research in Psychology (2)

5. Questions – Case studies
7) Define what is meant by a case study (1) 8) Identify one example of a case study used in the topic of memory (1) 9) Give two advantages of a case study (2) 10) Give two disadvantages of a case study (2)

6. Answers - Correlations
What is called when both variables increase?
Positive correlation
2) What is it called when one variable increases and the other variable decreases?
Negative correlation
3) What is the statistic called which shows the strength and direction of the correlation?
Correlation Coefficient

7. Questions - Correlations
4) Using the following words, estimate the strength and direction of these scores (weak, moderate, strong, perfect, positive, negative, no)
0.25 weak positive correlation
strong negative correlation
0.5 moderate positive correlation
weak positive correlation
0 no correlation
-1 perfect negative correlation
-0.95 strong negative correlation

8. Questions - Correlations
Give two advantages of using correlational research in Psychology (2 marks)
Can be used when research would be impossible or unethical to manipulate an IV.
One can predict the value from one variable based on the value from another variable if they are correlated.
Give two disadvantages of using correlational research in Psychology (2 marks)
Cannot and must not infer cause and effect relationships
Can only detect linear (straight line) relationships.

9. Questions – Case studies
7) Define what is meant by a case study A non-experimental research study in which one person (or small group) are studied in detail. 8) Identify one example of a case study used in the topic of memory Clive Wearing; The case of HM; 9) Give two advantages of a case study Rich in detail – provide great depth of unique cases Useful for theory contradiction 10) Give two disadvantages of a case study Not representative Risk of researcher bias

10. Define the following:
Extraneous/confounding variables relevant to experiments:
Participant variables
Psychological qualities of p’s that might affect their performance on the task
Demand characteristics
All cues, which convey to the p’s the purpose of the experiment.
Order effects
order of the conditions having an effect on the participants’ behavior.
Investigator effects
Any effects on the investigator’s behaviour on the research outcome.
Extraneous Variables are undesirable variables that influence the relationship between the variables that an experimenter is examining if it is not controlled. Another way to think of this, is that these are variables the influence the outcome of an experiment, though they are not the variables that are actually of interest.
Confounding variables: any variable that may have affected the DV other than the IV. Varies systematically with the IV so we cannot be sure of the true source of change to the DV. Cause one condition to perform better than the other

11. Define the following controls…
Counterbalancing
An attempt to control for the effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the participants experience the conditions in one order, and the other half in the other order.
Randomisation
Use of ‘chance’ in order to control for the effects of bias
Standardisation (instructions, environment, experience)
Ensuring all participants are subject to the same experience
Single & double blind procedures
Single blind procedure: participant does not know the condition under which they are being tested
Double blind procedure: experimenter does not know the condition under which the p’s are being tested
Using exactly the same procedure for the participants (e.g. a set of instructions) in order to be able to repeat the study

12. How could you control for
Participant variables?
Random allocation of p’s to conditions
Pre-test of participants
Representative allocation
Order effects?
Counterbalancing
Complex counterbalancing
Randomisation of condition order
Randomisation of stimulus items.
Elapsed time

13. Hypotheses What is a hypothesis? testable, predictable statement.
States the relationship between the variables being tested
What are the qualities of a good hypothesis?
Testability
based on knowledge
Simple
Operational
Open doors for further enquiry.
What is the IV? Manipulated/changed naturally
What is the DV?: measured. Any effect should be down to the IV
Why do we operationalise –define so they can be clearly measured
Apply it t homework hand out

14. What is a one tailed and two tailed hypothesis?
A one tailed (directional) hypothesis states the direction in which the results are expected to go
People who have plentiful sleep (an average of 8 hours or more hours per night over a period of one month) have better marks in class tests than people with a lower sleep average.
A two tailed (non- directional) hypothesis states that there is a difference between two conditions but does nor state the direction of the difference.
People who have plentiful sleep (an average of 8 hours or more hours per night over a period of one month) have different marks in class tests than people with a lower sleep average.
Frame hypothesis in the direction indicated by past research.
What types of words used. There will be a difference/ effect, erlationship. Higher, lower, faster, slower

15. Complete the worksheet
Investigation design
Complete the worksheet
(task 1 and task 2)

16. Starter on mwb: Write a suitable directional hypothesis for this investigation (3 marks).
Two psychologists investigated the relationship between age and recall of medical advice. Previous research had shown that recall of medical advice tended to be poorer in older patients. The study was conducted at a doctor’s surgery and involved a sample of 30 patients aged between 18 and 78 years. They all saw the same doctor, who made notes of the advice that she gave during the consultation. One of the psychologists interviewed each of the patients individually, immediately after they had seen the doctor. The psychologist asked each patient a set of questions about what the doctor had said about their diagnosis and treatment. The patients’ responses were recorded and then typed out. Working independently the psychologists compared each typed account with the doctor’s written notes in order to rate the accuracy of the accounts on a scale of 1 – 10. A high rating indicated that the patient’s recall was very accurate and a low rating indicated that the patient’s recall was very inaccurate.
5 minutes

17. Mark scheme 3 marks for a fully operationalised hypothesis as above
A suitable directional hypothesis would be
‘There is a negative correlation (relationship) between age and recall accuracy rating’.
3 marks for a fully operationalised hypothesis as above
2 marks for a directional correlational hypothesis that identifies age and recall as the two variables but is not fully operationalised
1 mark for a directional hypothesis where the variables are not identified (‘there will be a negative correlation’) or where the hypothesis lacks clarity.
Award zero marks for a non- directional or null hypothesis or any hypothesis predicting a difference or association.

18. Write an operationalised non-directional hypothesis for this study
Write an operationalised non-directional hypothesis for this study. ( 2 marks)
Some studies have suggested that there may be a relationship between intelligence and happiness. To investigate this claim, a psychologist used a standardised test to measure intelligence in a sample of 30 children aged 11 years, who were chosen from a local secondary school. He also asked the children to complete a self-report questionnaire designed to measure happiness. The score from the intelligence test was correlated with the score from the happiness questionnaire. The psychologist used a Spearman’s rho test to analyse the data. He found that the correlation between intelligence and happiness at age 11 was

19. Swap answers with your partner
Award 2 marks for an appropriate non-directional hypothesis which is operationalised. ‘There is a relationship between happiness scores on a questionnaire and intelligence test scores of 30 children’. Award 1 mark for a non-directional hypothesis which is not fully operationalised or lacks clarity (‘there is a relationship between happiness and intelligence’). Award no marks for a null or directional hypothesis, or one that predicts a difference/link/association/connection.

20. Control of variables Extraneous variables: Random and constant error
Extraneous variables are unwanted variables that may affect the dependent variable.
There are two sorts of extraneous variables: random errors and constant errors.
Random errors cannot be predicted and are such things as a participants state of mind (random allocation to conditions will partly overcome random errors as they will balance out across groups).
Constant errors effect the dependent variable in a consistent way so are a more serious problem, but equally a well designed experiment should counter constant errors. An example of a constant error is in a repeated measures when the order of conditions is not reversed.
An uncontrolled constant error that affects the dependent variable in a systematic way is called a confounding variable; if a study is affected by a confounding variable the result of the study is not valid since cause and effect cannot be seen.

21. How can we minimise extraneous variables?
Replicable procedure
Standardised instruction
Controlled room environment
Reliable measurement
Consistency between the conditions

22. Practice exam question take 2
In a laboratory experiment involving a medical consultation role-play, participants were randomly allocated to one of two conditions. In Condition A, a doctor used diagrams to present to each participant a series of facts about high blood pressure. In Condition B, the same doctor presented the same series of facts about high blood pressure to each participant but without the use of diagrams.
At the end of the consultation, participants were tested on their recall of facts about high blood pressure. Each participant was given a score out of ten for the number of facts recalled.
In this case, the psychologists decided to use a laboratory experiment rather than a field experiment.
Discuss advantages of carrying out this experiment in a laboratory. (4 marks)

23. Pilot studies Purpose = to help foresee any problems
Whether the design works
Whether participants understand the meaning of questions / wording etc
Has anything important been missed out
Test the validity of the study… how?
Test the reliability of the study … how?
Any improvements can be identified and implemented

24. Reliability and Validity
Complete the worksheet

25. Role of peer review
In the peer review process, a paper is submitted to a journal and evaluated by several reviewers.  (Reviewers are often individuals with an impressive history of work in the area of interest, that is, the specific area that the article addresses). 
After critiquing the paper the reviewers submit their thoughts to the editor.  Then, based on the commentaries from the reviewers, the editor decides whether to publish the paper, make suggestions for additional changes that could lead to publication, or reject the paper.
The primary purpose of peer review is to ensure that the papers published are valid and unbiased.

26. Why bother?
“Peer review is one way (replication is another) science institutionalises the attitudes of objectivity and public criticism.  Ideas and experimentation undergo a honing process in which they are submitted to other critical minds for evaluation.  Ideas that survive this critical process have begun to meet the criterion of public verifiability” (Stanovich, 2007, p. 12).
But really….why?

27. Why bother?
Research proposals will be scrutinized to check it is robust
To ensure it can contribute to already existing knowledge
Ethics approval
Encourages academic debate, openness and communication
Ensure there is no bias
Appropriateness of conclusions drawn
Ensure it is worth dissemination- journals
Consider wider implications
Find any errors
Ensure it can be repeated

28. What does peer review involve?
Here are some of the aspects of the research that are scrutinised:
Originality of the research
The appropriateness of the overall research design, including the methods used to collect and analyse the data
Ethical issues
The sample technique used
Potential sources of bias
The operationalization and control of key variables
The reliability, validity and interpretation of the findings
The appropriateness of any conclusions drawn
Recommendations are made by other researchers and reviewers into whether the paper should be published in its original form, revised or rejected.

29. Task: Peer review this study
George has a feeling that people who own dogs are more caring than people who own cats. The reason why he thinks this may be the case is because he believes that dogs take more care than cats and therefore will attract those who have a more caring personality.
He decides to ask some of his friends if they agree with him. He tells his friends that he thinks dog owners will be more caring than cat owners and why. Five of his friends agree with him. They suggest other reasons why dog owners may be more caring than cat owners that George had not thought of. Therefore, George concludes that he is right. Dog owners are more caring than cat owners.
George consequently posts an article on an online forum stating that dog owners are more caring than cat owners with a discussion of all the reasons why this may be, incorporating the views he has collected from his friends.

30. Why is peer review so important
This peer review process helps to ensure that any research paper published in a well-respected journal has integrity and, therefore, can be taken seriously because it has been independently scrutinised by fellow researchers.
Also,
It is difficult for authors and researchers to spot every mistake in a piece of work. Showing the work to others increases the probability that weaknesses will be identified and addressed.
It helps to prevent the dissemination of irrelevant findings, unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations, personal views and deliberate fraud.
Peer reviewers also judge the quality and the significance of the research in a wider context.

31. Bias
Reviewer
Publication
Reputation

32. Past exam question on peer review
A. Outline what is meant by the term peer review in psychological research
(2 marks)
B. Explain why peer review is important in psychological research. (5 marks)

33. Mark scheme – a)
AO1 =2 marks
Peer review is the process by which psychological research papers, before publication, are subjected to independent scrutiny by other psychologists working in a similar field who consider the research in terms of its validity, significance and originality.
0 marks for ‘other psychologists look at the research’.
1 mark for a very brief outline eg ‘other psychologists look at the research report before it is published.’
One further mark for elaboration

34. Mark scheme – b)

35. Qualitative and Quantitative data
See handout

36. Measure of dispersion
Range = the difference between the highest and lowest numbers
Variance = how spread out (far away) a number is from the mean
Standard Deviation = loosely defined as the average amount a number differs from the mean

37. Descriptive statistics
Measure of central tendency
Measure of dispersion
Complete the handout
Standard deviation is a measure of dispersion that shows the spread of scores around the mean. The greater the standard deviation the great the spread of scores around the mean.
Standard deviation is a number used to tell how measurements for a group are spread out from the average (mean), or expected value.
A low standard deviation means that most of the numbers are very close to the average.
A high standard deviation means that the numbers are spread out.

38. Reporting psychological investigations
When a psychologist carries out research, they must write it up in a report. This report always follows the same format.
Define the following:
Abstract
Introduction
Method
Results
Discussion
References
Give student handout

39. Exam question practice
Imagine that you are writing up the report for this experiment. What is the purpose of the abstract in a psychological report? [2 marks] Award one mark for a brief answer (‘the purpose of an abstract is to provide a short summary of the study’) and two marks for a detailed answer referring to providing sufficient information to establish if the full report is worth reading.

40. Designing an experiment
What points do you need to consider when designing an experiment?

41. Music can affect the ability to concentrate.
Design an experiment that could be carried out in a classroom to test the effects of two different kinds of music on a task requiring concentration (e.g. word search).
You must use a repeated measures design.
You should:
fully operationalise the independent and dependent variables
provide details of how you would control extraneous variables
describe the procedure that you would use.

42. Exam question: 15 minutes to answer
Research has shown that music can affect the ability to concentrate. Design an experiment that could be carried out in a classroom to test the effects of two different kinds of music on a task requiring concentration.
You must use a repeated measures design.
In your answer you should:
fully operationalise the independent and dependent variables
provide details of how you would control extraneous variables
describe the procedure that you would use. You should provide sufficient detail for the study to be carried out.
(10 marks)

43. Graphs Types of graphs: Bar chart Scatter graphs Histograms
Line graphs

44. Content analysis/ thematic analysis
A researcher makes their observations indirectly through books, films, adverts, photos, songs, diaries etc.
analysis of the content of any artefact.
The researcher will make three decisions.
1. Sampling method-what to use, for example choosing which channels to watch, for how long, what length of time. If analysing book content then do you look at every page, or say every fifth page?
2. Coding the data. What behavioural categories need to be used? For example, if a researcher was performing a content analysis from the diaries of someone with depression, they need to develop specific categories and tally each time they are reported in the diary. Decisions about behavioural categories may involve a thematic analysis (see below).
3. Method of representing data-Should the data be quantitative, so you count the number of times a person’s diary mentions feeling sad? Or should it be qualitative where you would describe themes so pull out descriptions of passages where the person says they have felt sad.

45. Content analysis/ thematic analysis
1. Read and reread the data, become immersed in the content, don’t make notes
2. Break the data into meaningful units- small bits of text which are able to independently convey meaning e.g. sentences or phrases
3. Assign a label or code to each unit. These codes are your initial behavioural categories. You will have developed some ideas whilst reviewing the data in step one.
4. Combine simple codes into larger categories/themes and then instances can be counted examples given.
5. A check can be made on the emergent categories by collecting a new set of data and applying the categories). They should fit the data well if they represent the topic area investigated.

46. Still to cover Assessing and improving reliability and validity
Features of science
Inferential statistics
Carrying out statistical tests