1. Part 1: The Basis for Modern Policing Chapter 2: Historical Foundations of Policing

2. This Chapter will enable you to…
Identify notable persons in history who made valuable contributions to modern policing in the United States.
Recognize old Peelian philosophies in current public mandates for police behavior.
Identify significant differences in the formulation of police systems in Colonial America & the established police system in England.
Describe stages of police development in the U.S.
Understand how technology & public reform contributed to alienation of police from the citizenry.

3. Historical Foundations of Policing
To understand the structure & functions of the police, it is necessary to examine them in historical context.
All societies maintain order somehow, and whether they do so with the police is a matter of definition.
Police officers are the most visible component of a government in society.
One of the duties of the police, maintaining order in society, may also be accomplished through interactions with persons in nongovernmental roles.
Teachers, judges, legislators, members of clergy.

4. Historical Foundations of Policing
Even when the term police refers to the dominant modern form, there are ambiguities in application.
It is not always clear when a person may be regarded as a government official.
There can be both public and private police, and the distinction between the two is not always clear to members of the general citizenry.
The medieval constable, an officer of the common law, was paid privately by people who wanted to escape the obligatory civic duty of police service.
The English sheriff was appointed & paid by the Crown.

5. Historical Foundations of Policing
The subject of law and order has been a concern since the beginning of recorded history.
Are the police social service agents or law enforcers?
Should the police serve the people in a community or the government in that community?

6. ANCIENT POLICE SYSTEMS
In the ancient empires, law enforcement was a function of the military, and actions of the protectors were often guided by whims of emperors rather than by the rule of law.
One of the oldest criminal codes is the Code of Hammurabi, developed by the king of Babylonia around 2100 B.C.
The early Egyptians established laws and courts and a rudimentary rule of law.
They later organized marine patrols and custom houses to protect commerce.

7. ANCIENT POLICE SYSTEMS: Greece
Ancient Greeks relied on an informal system of "kin police," whereby the victim's family would be empowered to serve as the police and bring the wrongdoer before the magistrate.
Inadequate at best, this system resulted in widespread lawlessness.
Bodyguards were widely used as police throughout much of the early history of Greece.

8. ANCIENT POLICE SYSTEMS: Rome
Traditional Roman society was organized along strong kinship lines where rigid distinctions were made between domestic & civil responsibilities.
Each Roman owed first allegiance to family, and the government would not interfere in family matters.
Changes came with the reign of Augustus, who began a movement in the which power of the family was reduced and that of the government increased.

9. ANCIENT POLICE SYSTEMS: Rome
The Praetorian Guard, about 7,000 soldiers in the city of Rome, watched the outer perimeters of the city for criminals and invading armies.
Other officials, such as quaestores, worked for magistrates and had arrest authority.
Vigiles also served as watchmen and were responsible for both police and firefighting duties.
Maintenance of public order became the charge of the police in Rome, which took control over the management of public disputes.

10. ANCIENT POLICE SYSTEMS: The Middle Ages
Centralized government required for successful maintenance of law & order ended with the fall of the Roman Empire.
Historical legal groundwork laid by the Greeks and Romans was all but forgotten during the Middle Ages.
A means to restore social order from chaos, the feudal system, was a social structure was built on the premise of mutual social responsibility.
Feudal lords administered justice to those under their control as they deemed necessary.

11. ANCIENT POLICE SYSTEMS: The Middle Ages
The church also played a role in determining what constituted a criminal violation, as well as how the infraction was to be arbitrated.
Neither feudal lords nor the churches answered to a central authority.
In the 12th & 13th centuries, kings took over the administration of law, creating official positions.
Louis IX created a provost who directed the night watch and commanded a mounted guard.
The beginning of the Maréchausée, which became today’s Gendarmerie.

12. ANCIENT POLICE SYSTEMS: The Middle Ages
In the early fourteenth century, highways were made safe by mounted military patrols.
In twelfth-century Scandinavia, the gjaldkere was given administrative responsibility of towns, which included responsibility of law and order.
Their counterparts, the Lensman, enforced the law and collected taxes.

13. POLICE DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND
U.S. law enforcement can be traced to England.
Before the Norman Conquest, there was no typical English police force.
In 12th century England, sheriffs were appointed to levy fines & ensure the frankpledge system worked.
A system based on an organization of tithings, collectives of ten families, and hundreds (ten tithings)
Eventually, these hundreds became known as parishes, and several hundreds became known as a shire.
An area of several hundreds was supervised by reeves or shire-reeves, later called sheriffs.

14. POLICE DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND
In 1326, the Justice of the Peace was created in England, to assist the sheriff in policing the county.
The constable assisted the Justice of the Peace, a system of law enforcement in place until the 1800s.
Much of the work was voluntary & not popular, so the paying of substitutes became commonplace.
Often elderly, poorly paid & educated, and inefficient,.
At the end of the 1700s families by the thousands began to travel to factory towns to find work.
Existing systems of law enforcement were inadequate to respond to the problems associated with these changes.

15. POLICE DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND: Bow Street Runners
In London, criminals had little to fear from the system of law enforcement, and moved freely about the city.
When property crimes were committed, the usual procedure was to employ a thief-taker, or "thief catcher."
This person, would attempt, for a fee, to secure a return of all or part of the stolen property.
Thief-takers were not interested in apprehending and prosecuting criminals, but only in getting paid and returning all or part of the stolen property.

16. POLICE DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND: Bow Street Runners
In the mid-18th century, Henry Fielding was appointed magistrate in Westminster.
A large criminal fencing organization led by Jonathan Wild employed a loosely organized group of thieves.
Police response was slow, due to corruption & apathy.
Fielding established working relationships with pawnbrokers, giving them lists of stolen property.
He also placed advertisements in newspapers, requesting descriptions of known thieves & robbers.
Fielding's idea was novel, as people were not used to sharing information of thefts with authorities.

17. POLICE DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND: Bow Street Runners
Within the first year, Fielding's efforts were joined by other constables, forming one of the first investigative squads in England, the Bow Street Runners.
They were not official police & not entitled to regular pay, but were entitled to standard thief-taker rewards.
Fielding's venture was eventually acknowledged by the government, which offered a small financial subsidy for the continuation of his efforts.
The Runners continued operating unofficially, as knowledge of public support would likely have been publicly condemned as an instrument of oppression.

18. POLICE DEVELOPMENT IN ENGLAND: Bow Street Runners
The successes of the Bow Street Runners continued until the gradual formation of a horse patrol in 1804.
The patrol employed over 50 men, whose uniform consisted of red vests, blue jackets, and blue trousers.
This was considered by many to be England's first uniformed police force.

19. PROFESSIONALIZATION AND THE ENGLISH POLICE
Prime Minister William Pitt attempted to create a metropolitan police force in 1785, but the attempt floundered on the opposition of commercial interests.
Scottish-born merchant Patrick Colquhoun authored a treatise which suggested British law enforcement follow the model of the French police.
Widely considered subversive and oppressive.
He rationalized that a city relying on commerce cannot tolerate extensive criminal activity.
As a result of Colquhoun's Treatise, the Thames Police Act (1800) was passed.

20. THE LONDON METROPOLITAN POLICE
Sir Robert Peel, England's home secretary, had long advocated full-time professional police to patrol London.
In 1829, a watershed in police development occurred when, despite considerable opposition, the Metropolitan Police Act was passed by Parliament.
Authorizing a police force of 1,000 unarmed officers known as Bobbies, named for Peel.
Fig An English police officer or "Bobby" in uniform with his tall domed helmet that carries the police insignia.

21. THE LONDON METROPOLITAN POLICE
The new force, replacing inept & unprofessional constables of the myriad parishes, was led by two magistrates, later given the title of commissioner.
London's first commissioners were career military officer Colonel Charles Rowan and attorney Richard Mayne.
Rowan believed the police & the citizenry must have mutual respect for the new system to be effective.
Bobbies would give the impression of professionalism through distinctive uniforms & strict standards of height, weight, character, and literacy.

22. THE LONDON METROPOLITAN POLICE
During the early part of the nineteenth century, it is suggested English police had a four-part mandate:
1. To prevent local disturbances without the use of repressive force and to avoid intervention by the military.
2. To control public order nonviolently, using force to gain compliance only as a last resort.
3. To reduce conflict between the public and the police.
4. To demonstrate efficiency through the absence of crime and disorder rather than by visible evidence of oppressive police action.

23. ENGLISH INFLUENCE ON U.S. POLICING
As a result of the English model of policing, three characteristics of U.S. law enforcement evolved:
Local control.
Limited authority.
Organizational fragmentation.
Like our English counterparts, there is no national police force in the United States.
Law enforcement is fragmented, with many agencies representing different government levels & jurisdictions.
Our current system of law enforcement was slow in its evolution.

24. EARLY AMERICAN POLICING: (1600-1860)
Police departments in the U.S., as highly structured, salaried bureaucracies, where most members wear uniforms, began in the generation before 1860.
From the beginning, police have been a multipurpose agency of municipal government, not just a component of the criminal justice system.
The earliest inhabitants of colonial cities in the 17th century still had at least one foot in the Middle Ages.
Their worldview was dominated by scarcity.
The Government's most important task was to regulate economic life.

25. EARLY AMERICAN POLICING: Urban Growth & Need for Police
Between 1820 & 1860, U.S. cities attracted many migrants, from rural America, Ireland & Germany.
When municipal governments examined growth & its consequences, they were exhilarated and fearful.
1 in 20 Americans lived in an urban settlement in 1790.
The ratio was one in five in 1860.
The business elite exercised disproportionate influence on urban government throughout the so-called "age of the common man."

26. EARLY AMERICAN POLICING: Urban Growth & Need for Police
When city councils became less patrician and more plebeian in the late 1840s & 1850s, they also lost many of their former functions.
Independent boards & commissions replaced council committees as the overseers of public services.
The mayor, almost invariably a leading business or professional man, became a more powerful figure.
The council, usually elected by wards, often reacted to external initiatives rather than proposing measures of its own.
At least for anything beyond the neighborhood level.

27. EARLY AMERICAN POLICING: Urban Growth & Need for Police
Riots, often with specific political targets and goals, were common in pre-industrial urban life.
Rioters rarely took life, though they often destroyed considerable property.
In most instances rioters seemed content to disperse once they had made their point.
By the 1820s, middle & upper-class urbanites were no longer willing to accept unseemly behavior in public.
From the early 18th century, urbanites like Benjamin Franklin organized voluntary societies to achieve desirable social goals.

28. EARLY AMERICAN POLICING: Urban Conditions
Fig A New York City police officer around 1910.
Cities created police departments during a period of U.S. history characterized by massive social change brought about by industrialization, immigration, and urbanization.
Between 1860 &1910 the modern U.S. city emerged, as the total population of the country tripled to 92 million.
The number of people living in cities grew from a low of 5% in the early nineteenth century to over 45% by 1910.

29. EARLY AMERICAN POLICING: Urban Conditions
All cities experienced the effects of industrialization and urbanization in some form.
Population growth mushroomed and the demands on urban government for services increased dramatically.
Cities such as New York, Boston, and Philadelphia created their uniformed police organizations during a period of great social and political turmoil.
The constable and watch systems of the 18th century were not designed to address a preventive role.
The constable-watch system did not act to prevent crime but operated on a reactive basis.

30. THE RISE OF U.S. URBAN POLICE DEPARTMENTS
The model of the London police prompted U.S. urban leaders to think about establishing police institutions.
As an example, the population of New York City had grown almost fourfold between 1790 & 1820.
By the mid-1830s city officials were concerned about spreading instances of street violence.
When the great fire struck in 1835, authorities could neither fight the fire effectively nor control looting.
Sensational murder cases went undetected & largely uninvestigated unless someone put up substantial reward money.

31. THE NEW YORK CITY POLICE DEPARTMENT
State lawmakers adopted legislation in 1844 creating the New York City Police Department, setting forth its powers and structure in detail.
Municipal approval making it effective occurred in 1845.
The city made the police responsible for a wide range of services, from inspecting hacks & stages to lighting the gas lamps in the evening.
The police were never thought of exclusively as| a crime-fighting and order-maintenance group.

32. THE NEW YORK CITY POLICE DEPARTMENT
By the early 19th century, New York had more than 100 persons with police powers, either as elected constables or as appointed mayor's marshals.
These officers spent much of their time in the service of civil processes, while available for hire by theft victims.
They made a specialty of returning stolen property in exchange for a bounty, usually consisting of a portion of the recovery.
Early 19th-century police officers were fee-for-service professionals rather than salaried bureaucrats.

33. The NYPD: A Different Structure
The New York Police Department was a salaried bureaucracy, differing in significant ways from the London police.
The New York police were not uniformed, though members carried a star-shaped badge for identification.
The alderman of the particular ward had the most to say about who should serve as police officers.
If an alderman was voted out of office, most of the police officers he appointed also lost their jobs.

34. The NYPD: A Different Structure
In 1853, a new law established a board of police commissioners, reducing the aldermen's role in appointments and administration.
Officers now could be removed only for cause, making police work a career.
The new commissioners put the police in uniforms, an innovation resisted without success by men who cherished their anonymity.
In New York, ultimate authority over police lay with locally elected officials who, with judges, were prone to let police take a tougher approach than in London

35. The NYPD: A Different Structure
An obvious, important difference was the unarmed police of London, compared with the armed police of New York.
Through the 19th & most of the 20th centuries, English police officers were not armed.
In New York the police were not armed early in their history, and officers began to carry weapons without legal authorization.
They perceived their working environment as dangerously unpredictable.

36. The NYPD: A Different Structure
New York newspapers complained in the mid1850s that the streets of New York were more dangerous than the plains of Kansas.
The arming of U.S. police soon became custom.
U.S. public authorities took the position that the tough, armed cop was the best response to the problem of crime and disorder within their cities.
In 1857 the New York state legislature abolished the municipal police & substituted a new department.
The Metropolitan Police, with responsibilities for an enlarged district.

37. THE TREND CONTINUED
Just as London provided the model for New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, these eastern cities served as models for other U.S. communities.
15 cities adopted uniforms as key indicators of a bureaucratic police by 1860.
Another 24 joined them in the following decade.
The salaried, bureaucratic police was an idea whose time had come between 1840 and 1870.
Later decades saw maturation & expansion of the patterns established during these formative years.

38. THE TREND CONTINUED
A general consensus exists regarding the historical periods of development for modern policing in U.S.:
The political era ( ).
The reform era ( ).
The community policing era (1970-present).
Examining stages of police development provides a framework for understanding the evolution of modern policing.
Also how social values have contributed to the formation of our current system of law and order.

39. THE POLITICAL ERA ( )
As cities grew, so did instances of public disorder, drunkenness, and violent conduct by citizens.
Officers of the 19th century were grossly disliked, yet granted broad powers of arrest, search, and seizure.
The political era is labeled such because of close associations between police and political leaders.
In many cases police were viewed as extensions of local politicians, whose primary concern was re-election.
Corruption flourished during the political era, as the policeman's first allegiance was not to the public, but to the local politician who controlled city hall.

40. THE EMERGENCE OF THE SHERIFF
The county sheriff was the first formal law enforcement officer to appear in the new territories.
His charge was that one who responded to crimes that had already occurred.
Sheriffs were paid on the fee system, incurring a fixed amount for each arrest made.
In time, the authority of the U.S. sheriff expanded to include the managing of public elections and county tax collection, as well as enforcement duties.

41. THE EMERGENCE OF THE SHERIFF: Posse Comitatus Act
The staff of a U.S. sheriff often relied on the power of posse comitatus (Latin for "power of the country").
Authority to coordinate activities of all police agencies.
The sheriff used posse comitatus powers to summon able-bodied men to assist in tracking & capturing fugitives.
A power that would literally place the resources of the entire community at the sheriff's disposal.
Today, 33 states consider the sheriff a constitutional officer regarded as the chief law enforcement officer of the county.

42. SOUTHERN JUSTICE
During the pre-Civil War era in the South, police administration & policy were greatly influenced by slave trade.
Special courts of magistrates and freeholders were granted plenary jurisdiction over matters concerning criminal activity by slaves, and jurisdiction was broad.
Excessive punishments by plantation owners would at times cause intervention of a justice of the peace & sometimes result in execution of a slave owner.
In general, the white society of the South was willing to allow individualized justice to flourish.

43. VIGILANTE JUSTICE
While the East & Midwest easily adopted British-style police systems, less developed areas adopted a system of justice at the point of a gun.
Some communities organized "town vigilance" committees to hunt down offenders for justice.
One who became known for his role in vigilante justice was Charles Lynch, after whom the term lynching was coined.
Lynch & his associates became well known for tracking and punishing offenders, often according to the well-known dictates of the so-called Lynch law.

44. VIGILANTE JUSTICE
Other frontiersmen who acted in both official and unofficial capacities as judge and jury included:
Judge Roy Bean
Wild Bill Hickock
Wyatt Earp
Bat Masterson
Pat Garrett
As urban areas continued to grow, however, such ad hoc groups became increasingly difficult to organize & control.

45. STATE POLICE AGENCIES
Pioneers in state policing organizations were the Texas Rangers, who became well known in history.
Equipped in 1823 by Stephen Austin to protect settlements from Indian attack.
The Arizona Rangers organized in 1901.
The Pennsylvania Constabulary, started in 1905, focused most of its efforts on controlling strikes.
Fig The Texas Rangers in the late 1800s.
Many states established agencies, generally highway patrols with limited police power, and state police with investigative powers.

46. THE FIRST POLICE FORCES: Boston
Boston has been credited with establishing the country's first formal police department in 1838.
Its night watch was established as far back as 1801.
The Boston model included stations connected by telegraph lines, enabling officers to transmit information quickly & respond with greater efficiency.
Police boxes allowed an officer to turn a key in a box and his location would be registered at headquarters.
Hence the term turnkey.
By the mid-19th century, Boston police had added a detective bureau, ending the practice of thief-taking.

47. THE FIRST POLICE FORCES: New York
In 1844, New York established the first police force offering citizens 24-hour protection.
New York policemen initially did not wear uniforms due to indifference of the general populace.
In 1853, a police uniform was adopted department-wide.
As a symbol of authority, the department adopted a single copper badge, mounted on a leather circle.
From this they acquired the nickname copper.
Although initially issued only a truncheon, the killing of numerous officers by armed criminals soon resulted in departmental issuance of firearms.

48. THE FIRST POLICE FORCES
A prevailing characteristic of America's new-style police was the prevalence of politics in hiring, promotion, and enforcement priorities.
Police did little to prevent crime or enforce laws, assuming the role of pawns for local politicians.
Consequently, appointments were sometimes limited to the period of time the officer's sponsoring politician remained in office.
At the end of the 19th century the position of police officer was highly desired because of the high salary.
Notably higher than the average blue-collar worker.

49. THE FIRST POLICE FORCES
With few technological aids to assist the officer, the mechanics of early police work were crude at best.
Training was minimal during the early years, and most officers worked under little supervision.
Today's public scrutiny stems from behavior of early officers who were unprofessional and harsh in their administration of justice.

50. EARLY 20th CENTURY CHANGE
Policing at the turn of the century was influenced by members of the progressive movement, Americans concerned with obtaining two goals:
Operating an efficient government.
Providing governmental services to the less fortunate.
Desiring to rid the government of political control of the police, progressives called for the creation of more professional police services.
The result was sweeping reform in criminal justice.

51. EARLY 20th CENTURY CHANGE
With professionalization, police services took on several new characteristics:
Expert officers formally educated and trained.
Police departments free of political influence.
Department formulated and implemented policies.
Efficiency in police administration.
Impartial enforcement of the law.

52. EARLY 20th CENTURY CHANGE
Changes at the end of the 19th century & early part of the 20th reflected other changes, as the U.S. became increasingly industrialized & urbanized.
A result of urbanization was creation of the urban middle-class, those who managed stores & factories.
These middle-class Americans grew dissatisfied with local politics and the police in particular.
Local political-machine bosses were not concerned with the middle class.
Only with voting constituency of ethnic neighborhoods.

53. THE REFORM ERA ( )
Because of their ties & role with city politics, police organizations have always been at the center of political controversy.
Partisan politics contributed greatly to police roles in corruption, brutality, and political manipulation.
The ultimate goal of reformers was to remove politics from policing by attempting to redefine the role and function of the police.
Gaining independence from politicians meant police could operate without political interference or corruption.

54. A major source of problems was the existence of the political machine.
THE REFORM ERA ( )
Redefining the police role from order maintenance & peacekeeping to crime control and law enforcement helped clarify the police function.
Instead of meeting a broad social service function, used to get votes by local politicians, police gradually concentrated on more crime-related matters.
Police reform was initially an extension of general reform efforts to improve cities & city governments.
A major source of problems was the existence of the political machine.
A problem that needed to be eliminated.

55. Urbanites had to seize control of the police from political bosses.
THE REFORM ERA ( )
Urbanites had to seize control of the police from political bosses.
Initially unsuccessful because the middle class did not possess sufficient power to accomplish the task.
For several decades, reformers in a number of cities tried to control local police via state government.
Many reformers wanted to use the police to control immigrant behavior and help "shape" them into their image of moral Americans.
Officers were often required to enforce unpopular laws, focused on immigrants by the elite reformers.

56. POLICE ADMINISTRATORS AND REFORM
Police administrators also sought reform, wanting to break from local political control of police.
To accomplish reform, police autonomy was needed, with an effort to improve quality of police personnel.
Toward the latter part of the nineteenth century, the typical U.S. police chief was, at best, a figurehead.
Rank-and-file officers allegiance to political bosses.
The reformers' job of translating ideals into reality had proven to be a nearly impossible task, as they lacked both ideological rationale and a means of controlling police rank and file.

57. PROFESSIONALIZING THE POLICE
As reform efforts slowly gained momentum, police work gradually became thought of as a profession.
The concept of a profession includes a presumption that members will have skills, training, commitment, a strict code of conduct & understanding they will enjoy a degree of autonomy and independence in governing their activities.
Thus police officers should be appointed because they have a commitment to the profession, not because of political patronage.

58. PROFESSIONALIZING THE POLICE
In 1893, the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP) was formed.
The IACP established itself as the principal organization for police reform.
The professionalization component of the reform era was marked by four important developments:
The changing role of the police.
The adoption of the bureaucratic model.
The introduction of science and technology.
The introduction of civil service

59. THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE POLICE
With the passing of the Eighteenth Amendment in 1920 (Prohibition) and the onset of the Great Depression in 1929, the police were under a new public mandate for crime control and public safety.
Prohibition was an emotionally charged issue that thrust police into an adversarial role, allowing public opinion to dictate police enforcement practices regarding vice and victimless crimes.
There was considerable pressure on police to act in a proactive role rather than the reactive manner to which they were accustomed.

60. THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE POLICE
The Depression was a desperate time for Americans, marked by widespread unemployment, bank failures, foreclosures on farms, and homelessness.
To survive, many people felt they had to commit crime.
Well-known criminals emerged from the Depression Era, resulting in the crime wave of the 1930s.
John Dillinger; Baby Face Nelson; Bonnie and Clyde.
Police officials & politicians realized ignoring this type of criminal behavior would only result in more people breaking the law.
Police agencies adopted a hard-line stance on crime.

61. THE CHANGING ROLE OF THE POLICE
An outcome of the new law & order stance against crime was President Hoover's National Commission on Law Observance and Law Enforcement.
Known as the Wickersham Commission, it studied rising crime rates & lack of police success in enforcing laws.
The 1931 findings of the commission were damaging to the image of the criminal justice system, causing debate over remedies to the problem for some time.
The commission held that police should adopt less of a service role & more of a crime-fighting role.

62. THE ADOPTION OF THE BUREAUCRATIC MODEL
The peak of police professionalization came about 1950, and it was felt professionalism played a large part in organizational efficiency in police work.
Police professionalism probably owed as much to the bureaucratic organization as it did to reform efforts.
Bureaucratic organization grew from centralization of administrative power & creation of special bureaus within departments.
Under this paramilitary model, police officer behavior could be monitored and supervised more closely.

63. THE ADOPTION OF THE BUREAUCRATIC MODEL
In an effort to respond more quickly, to a greater number of calls, most departments abandoned foot patrols in favor of motorized patrols.
Functions were consolidated, and command emanated from a central headquarters.

64. THE INTRODUCTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Fig A Michigan State Police forensic scientist searching for potential evidence from a suspect's clothing. The application of forensic science to crime-solving is based on the theory that anyone who has contact with a person or crime scene inadvertently takes something with them when they leave & leaves something of themselves behind.
Many believed that to be truly considered a profession, police work would have to take full advantage of new technology.
In time, human aspects of crime detection were replaced by science.
Use of physical evidence became paramount in solving cases and obtaining convictions.

65. THE INTRODUCTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Another technological innovation to revolutionize policing occurred in the area of transportation.
By 1913, police departments in the east were using the motorcycle, introduced by Detroit police in 1867.
Akron, Ohio police first used automobiles in 1910.
Cincinnati implemented police wagons in 1912.
Development of the telephone allowed the public to report crime to the station house immediately.
Using the call box, officers could summon a horse-drawn patrol wagon (the paddy wagon) to assist in the transportation of prisoners.

66. THE INTRODUCTION OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
Negative aspects of the technological revolution included strained public relations.
Due to the impersonal nature of the new “techno” police.
Though technology helped professionalize the police, it alienated & isolated them from the public they served.
Many police administrators felt solving crimes was more important than solving problems, and human relations skills gave the appearance of being unprofessional.

67. THE INTRODUCTION OF CIVIL SERVICE
An important step toward professionalization of policing was institution of civil service procedures.
For police officer selection and promotion.
Still in use today, the system selects police officer applicants based on civil service rankings.
Based on what applicants know, not who they know.
Civil service was long a primary goal of progressives who wanted more effective, responsive government.
By the end of World War I, civil service appointments of officers were the norm, especially in larger cities.

68. THE INTRODUCTION OF CIVIL SERVICE
Civil service served to weaken the stranglehold by politicians on the police while strengthening ability of administrators to control their officers effectively.
Civil service created an occupational identity for police officers, which allowed them to view themselves as a distinct professional group.
By 1920 police organizations were beginning to gain prominence and influence, & entry to the profession was no longer restricted by politics.
Police chiefs had finally gained sufficient authority to command and control officers in their departments.

69. THE PROFESSIONAL POLICE OFFICER EMERGES
Fig Criminologist August Vollmer.
August Vollmer, police chief of Berkeley, Ca. from , known as the father of scientific police investigation, established the first police training school in 1908.
He adopted fully mechanized patrol systems enabling officers to cover more distance in a shorter period of time.

70. THE PROFESSIONAL POLICE OFFICER EMERGES
Vollmer was a true innovator, adding two-way radios, and using the lie-detector in criminal investigations.
He supported hiring college-educated officers & helped organize the first academic criminology curriculum in the U.S.
The School of Criminology was housed in the Department of Political Science at the University of California, where he later worked as a university professor of police science.
In 1951, graduate degrees in criminology were established.

71. CIVIL RIGHTS AND POLICE PROFESSIONALIZATION
The 1960s saw considerable unrest in the arena of civil rights, as college students staged protests and sit-ins, to protest segregation and discrimination.
Police practices were scrutinized by civil rights advocates.
Tension between blacks & police climaxed during the mid-to-late 1960s with riots in most major U.S. cities.
Many police departments responded by establishing police-community relations programs (PCRs).
Officers made speeches at schools & community centers in an effort to bridge the gap between police & citizenry.

72. PROFESSIONALIZING POLICE ORGANIZATIONS
A positive outgrowth of reform was an increase in the development and application of standard operating procedures (SOPs) for police officers.
Rules & regulations police officers are required to follow.
Efforts continue to professionalize police, such as establishment of state police standards organizations.
Police officer standards & training (POST) organizations, strive to formalize & standardize training, procedures, and hiring practices.
Another advancement pertains to police accreditation for law enforcement agencies.

73. Avoidance of lawsuits is a prominent benefit.
POLICE ACCREDITATION
More police agencies are looking to accreditation as a means to ensure professionalization.
Avoidance of lawsuits is a prominent benefit.
Accredited departments' policies & procedures have met stringent national standards, lowering liability.
Many police executives believe accreditation gives the agency prestige & respect, and funding and improved resources can be more readily realized.
Though the argument can easily be made for accreditation, in actuality, only a few departments have done so.

74. PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
One mark of a professional group is the existence of an organization or association that represents its members in a professional manner.
Such as the American Medical Association (AMA) and the American Bar Association (ABA).
Though no such singular group represents the police profession, the organization that comes closest is the International Association of Chiefs of Police (IACP).
It has grown from a loose-knit fraternity of administrators to a broad-based practitioner-oriented international organization.

75. COMMUNITY POLICING ERA (1970-PRESENT)
With widespread civil disorder during the 1960s, the professional reforms of the 1950s were endangered.
Tensions provoked demonstrations & civil disobedience on college campuses across the nation.
Drug abuse gained momentum during the 1960s and has been linked to anti-establishment sentiments.
Under new pressures to control drug abuse and related crime, proactive efforts resulted in more animosity between the citizenry and the police.
The police were ill-prepared to deal effectively with civil disorder during the 1960s.

76. COMMUNITY POLICING ERA (1970-PRESENT)
To bolster police resources, the 1968 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act was passed.
Hundreds of millions of dollars were invested to improve the criminal justice system.
Research studies produced new knowledge about police methods, behavior, and effectiveness.
Grants and loans were made available to encourage individuals to pursue higher education.
Law officers were given grants to return to college.
Students who thought they might become officers were given loans to help with college expenses.

77. COMMUNITY POLICING ERA (1970-PRESENT)
Money from the federal government provided an incentive for colleges and universities to establish criminal justice programs.
The knowledge that existed to change the police during the legalistic era was based largely on the experience of practitioners such as August Vollmer.
By the 1970s, this body of knowledge was gradually replaced by knowledge derived from empirical research.
Critics, while challenging many established methods in policing, did not argue with the idea that officers should be efficient, fair-minded, and dedicated.

78. COMMUNITY POLICING ERA (1970-PRESENT)
A movement away from the crime-fighting focus toward a community-oriented approach to policing was beginning in the 1970s
It was believed that in pursuit of professionalism, the police had lost touch with the citizenry.
Especially true because motorized patrols reduced regular citizen contacts with police.
Research questioned the ability of police to catch and deter criminals by adding more police units to neighborhoods and increasing police response time.
Both major principles of the crime-fighting model.

79. COMMUNITY POLICING ERA (1970-PRESENT)
New emphasis on police-community relations had several effects on police organizational thoughts & procedures.
Advocates of community policing place a greater emphasis on foot patrol in order for the officer to become better acquainted with citizens.
After his 1980 election, President Ronald Reagan launched an unprecedented attack on the nation's drug problem and corresponding violent crime rate.
Police strategies became more responsive by targeting specific aspects of the problem through crime analysis.

80. COMMUNITY POLICING ERA (1970-PRESENT)
Stemming from the police-community relations model was the development of innovative concepts.
Community-oriented policing (COP).
Problem-oriented policing (POP).
Problem solving was viewed by administrators as a way to reduce future crime problems so police units would not have to return to take additional actions.