1. BAKESHOP PRODUCTION: BASIC PRINCIPLES AND INGREDIENTS
Chapter 30

2. Basic Principles of Baking
Formulas and Measurement --
The bakeshop is much like a chemistry laboratory.
Both in the scientific accuracy of all the procedures and in the complex reactions that take place during mixing and baking.

3. Basic Principles of Baking
FORMULAS AND MEASUREMENT (CONT’D)
Measurement
All ingredients must be weighed.
Accuracy of measurement is critical in the bakeshop.
Measurement is by weight rather than by volume.
Weight is much more accurate.

4. Basic Principles of Baking
FORMULAS AND MEASUREMENT (CONT’D)
Measurement
Scaling: the baker’s term for weighing out ingredients.
The follocwing ingredients may be measured by volume.
Water
Milk
Eggs
They weigh 1 pound per pint or 1 kilogram per liter.
All other liquid ingredients and all dry ingredients are normally weighed.

5. Basic Principles of Baking
FORMULAS AND MEASUREMENT (CONT’D)
Baker’s Percentages
Baker’s percentages express the amount of each ingredient used as a percentage of the amount of flour used.
The percentage of each ingredient is its total weight divided by the weight of the flour, multiplied by 100 percent.
Flour is always 100 percent (if two kinds of flour are used, their total is 100 percent).
Weight of ingredient × 100% = % of ingredient
Weight of flour

6. Basic Principles of Baking
FORMULAS AND MEASUREMENT (CONT’D)
Baker’s Percentages (cont’d)
The advantage of using baker’s percentages:
The formula is easily adapted for any yield.
Single ingredients may be varied without changing the whole formulation.
Remember that these numbers do not refer to the percentage of the total yield.
They are simply a way of expressing ingredient proportions.
The total of these percentage numbers will always be greater than 100 percent.

7. Basic Principles of Baking
FORMULAS AND MEASUREMENT (CONT’D)
Selection of Ingredients
Another basic rule of accuracy in the bakeshop is:
Use the exact ingredients specified.
Bakers’ formulas are balanced for specific ingredients.
Different flours, shortenings, and other ingredients do not function alike.

8. Basic Principles of Baking
Mixing and Gluten Development
What is Gluten?
Gluten is a substance made up of proteins present in wheat flour.
It gives structure and strength to baked goods.

9. Basic Principles of Baking
MIXING AND GLUTEN DEVELOPMENT c

10. Basic Principles of Baking
MIXING AND GLUTEN DEVELOPMENT (CONT’D)
How Does the Baker Control Gluten?
Selection of flours: Wheat flours develop gluten.
Strong flour: Comes from hard wheat and has high protein content.
Weak flour: Comes from soft wheat and has low protein content.
Shortening: Fat used in baking that shortens gluten strands.
Liquid: The amount of water in gluten protein formula can affect toughness (too much liquid) or tenderness (little liquid).
Mixing methods: Mixing dough/batter develops gluten.

11. Basic Principles of Baking
THE BAKING PROCESS
Melting of fats.
Formation and expansion of gases.
Killing of yeast and other microorganisms.
Coagulation of proteins.
Gelatinization of starches.
Escape of water and other gases.
Crust formation and browning.

12. Basic Principles of Baking
STALING
The change in texture and aroma of baked goods is due to:
Change in structure.
Loss of moisture by the starch granules.
Staling can be slowed by these techniques:
Protecting the product from air.
Adding moisture retainers to the formula.
Freezing.

13. Flours, Meals, and Starches
Ingredients
Flours, Meals, and Starches
White Wheat Flour
Milled from wheat kernels after the bran and the germ are removed.
Wheat flour contains 63 to 73 percent starch and 7 to 15 percent protein.
The remainder is moisture, fat, sugar, and minerals.
Wheat flour is the source of the protein called gluten.
Flours high in protein are called strong.
Flours low in protein are called weak.

14. FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
White Wheat Flour (cont’d)
Bread flour: A strong flour.
Used for making breads, hard rolls, and any product that requires high gluten.
Cake flour: Weak or low-gluten flour made from soft wheat.
Used for cakes and other delicate baked goods that require low gluten content.

15. FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
White Wheat Flour (cont’d)
Pastry flour: Lower in gluten than bread flour but higher than cake flour.
Used for cookies, pie pastry, some sweet yeast doughs, biscuits, and muffins.

16. FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Whole Wheat Flour
Made by grinding the entire wheat kernel, including the bran and germ.
The germ:
The embryo of a new wheat plant.
High in fat, which can become rancid.
Because of this, whole wheat flour does not keep as well as white flour.

17. FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D) c

18. FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Other Flours
Cornmeal
Buckwheat flour
Soy flour
Potato flour
Oat flour
Barley flour

19. FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Other Flours (cont’d)
The term meal is used for products that are not as finely ground as flour.
All these products must normally be used in combination with wheat flour because they do not form gluten.

20. FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
FLOURS, MEALS, AND STARCHES (CONT’D)
Starches
Cornstarch
Sets up almost like gelatin when cooled.
Waxy maize and other modified starches
Used for products that are to be frozen.
Instant starches
Precooked or pregelatinized.
They thicken cold liquids without further cooking.

21. Ingredients Fats Shortenings Has a tough, waxy texture.
Small particles of the fat tend to hold their shape in a dough or batter.
Does not melt until a high temperature is reached.
Regular shortening has good creaming ability.

22. Ingredients FATS (CONT’D) Shortenings (cont’d) Emulsified Shortening
Used whenever the weight of sugar in a cake batter is greater than the weight of flour.
Puff Pastry Shortening
Is especially formulated for puff pastry and other doughs that form layers.

23. Ingredients FATS (CONT’D) Butter and Margarine Characteristics:
Hard and brittle when cold
Soft at room temperature
Melts easily
Butter and margarine have two major advantages:
Flavor
Melting qualities

24. Ingredients FATS (CONT’D) Oils Oils are liquid fats.
Oils used in the bakeshop are limited primarily to:
Greasing pans and proofing bowls.
Deep-frying doughnuts.
Serving as a wash for some kinds of rolls.

25. Ingredients
Sugars
Sugars or sweetening agents are used for the following purposes in baking:
To add sweetness and flavor.
To create tenderness and fineness of texture by weakening the gluten structure.
To give crust color.
To increase keeping qualities by retaining moisture.
To act as creaming agents with fats.

26. Ingredients SUGARS (CONT’D) Regular Refined Sugars, or Sucrose
We customarily use the term sugar for regular refined sugars derived from sugar cane or beets.
The chemical name for these sugars is sucrose.
Refined sugars are classified by the size of grains:
Granulated sugar
Confectioners’ or powdered sugar

27. Ingredients SUGARS (CONT’D) Molasses and Brown Sugar
Molasses is concentrated sugar cane juice.
Sulfured molasses is a byproduct of sugar refining.
Unsulfured molasses is not a byproduct but a specially manufactured sugar product.
Brown sugar is mostly sucrose.
Contains varying amounts of molasses and other impurities.
The darker grades contain more molasses.
Because molasses and brown sugar contain acids, they can be used with baking soda to provide leavening.

28. Ingredients SUGARS (CONT’D) Glucose Corn Syrup
Corn syrup is a liquid sweetener consisting mainly of a sugar called glucose.
It is made by converting cornstarch into simpler sugar compounds by the use of enzymes.
Glucose syrup resembles corn syrup but is colorless and nearly tasteless.

29. Ingredients SUGARS (CONT’D) Honey A natural sugar syrup.
Consists largely of glucose and fructose, plus other compounds that give it flavor.
Honey contains invert sugar.
Stays smooth and resists crystallizing.
Contains acid, which enables it to be used with baking soda as a leavening.

30. Ingredients SUGARS (CONT’D) Malt Syrup Used primarily in yeast breads.
Serves as food for the yeast.
Adds flavor and crust color to the breads.

31. Ingredients Liquids Water
Water is the basic liquid in baking, especially in breads.
Tap water is normally suitable for most baking purposes.
In some localities, the water may be hard, meaning it contains many dissolved minerals.
These minerals interfere with proper gluten development.
In these areas, the water may have to be treated for use in baking.

32. Ingredients LIQUIDS (CONT’D) Milk and Cream Milk contributes to the:
Texture
Flavor
Nutritional value
Keeping quality
Crust color of baked goods.
Milk products include:
Liquid whole and skim milk
Buttermilk
Dry milk solids

33. Ingredients Eggs Functions
Eggs perform the following functions in baking:
Structure
Emulsification of fats
Leavening
Shortening action
Moisture
Flavor
Nutritional value
Color

34. Ingredients LEAVENING AGENTS
Leavening is the production or incorporation of gases in a baked product to increase volume and to produce shape and texture.
These gases must be retained in the product until the structure is set enough to hold its shape.

35. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Yeast
Fermentation: The process by which yeast acts on carbohydrates and changes them into carbon dioxide gas and alcohol.
This release of gas produces the leavening action in yeast products.
The alcohol evaporates completely during and immediately after baking.

36. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Yeast (cont’d)
Yeast is a microscopic plant. As a living organism, it is sensitive to temperatures.
34ºF (1ºC): inactive; storage temperature.
60º–70ºF (15º–20ºC): slow action.
70º–90ºF (20º–32ºC): best growth; proofing temperature for bread doughs.
Above 100ºF (38ºC): reaction slows.
140ºF (60ºC): yeast is killed.

37. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Yeast (cont’d)
Yeast is available in three forms:
Fresh yeast (also called compressed yeast)
Active dry yeast
A dry, granular form of yeast.
Must be rehydrated in four times its weight of warm water—about 110ºF (43ºC)—before use.
Instant dry yeast
Also a dry granular form of yeast.
It does not have to be dissolved in water before use.

38. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Chemical Leaveners
Baking soda is the chemical sodium bicarbonate.
If moisture and an acid are present, soda releases carbon dioxide gas, which leavens the product.
Products leavened with soda must be baked at once, or the gases will escape and leavening power will be lost.

39. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Chemical Leaveners (cont’d)
Acids that react with soda in a batter include:
Honey, molasses, buttermilk, fruits, cocoa, chocolate, and cream of tartar.
The amount of soda used in a formula is generally the amount needed to balance the acid.

40. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Chemical Leaveners (cont’d)
Baking powders are mixtures of baking soda plus an acid to react with it.
Single-acting baking powders require only moisture to be able to release gas.
Double-acting baking powders release some gas when cold, but they require heat for complete reaction.

41. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Chemical Leaveners (cont’d)
Baking ammonia is the chemical ammonium carbonate.
It decomposes during baking to form carbon dioxide gas and ammonia gas.
It can be used only in small products, like cookies, which allow the ammonia gas to be completely driven off.

42. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Air
Air is incorporated into a batter primarily by two methods: creaming and foaming.
This air expands during baking and leavens the product.
Creaming is the process of beating fat and sugar together to incorporate air.
Foaming is the process of beating eggs, with or without sugar, to incorporate air.

43. LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Ingredients
LEAVENING AGENTS (CONT’D)
Steam
When water turns to steam, it expands to 1,600 times its original volume.
Because all baked products contain some moisture, steam is an important leavening agent.
Puff pastry, cream puffs, popovers, and pie crusts use steam as their major or only leavening agent.

44. SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES
Ingredients
SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES
Salt is more than just a seasoning or flavor enhancer.
Salt also has these functions:
Strengthens gluten structure and makes it more stretchable
Improves the texture of breads
Inhibits yeast growth
It is, therefore, important for controlling fermentation in bread doughs and in preventing the growth of undesirable wild yeasts.

45. SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Chocolate and Cocoa
Chocolate and cocoa are derived from cocoa or cacao beans.
The beans are roasted and ground, and the resulting product is called chocolate liquor.
This contains a white or yellowish fat called cocoa butter.
Cocoa is the dry powder that remains after part of the cocoa butter is removed from the chocolate liquor.

46. SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Chocolate and Cocoa (cont’d)
Dutch process cocoa is processed with an alkali.
Bitter or unsweetened chocolate is straight chocolate liquor.
Sweet chocolate is bitter chocolate with the addition of sugar in varying amounts.
Milk chocolate is sweet chocolate with the addition of milk solids.

47. SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Spices
Use the best-quality spices to get superior results.
The most important spices in the bakeshop are:
Caraway
Cardamom
Allspice
Anise
Poppy seed
Cinnamon
Nutmeg
Mace
Cloves
Ginger

48. SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Extracts and Emulsions
Extracts are flavorful oils and other substances dissolved in alcohol.
Vanilla, lemon, and bitter almond
Emulsions are flavorful oils mixed with water with the aid of emulsifiers such as vegetable gums.

49. SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D)
Ingredients
SALT, FLAVORINGS, AND SPICES (CONT’D) c