1. Evolution of Races
Week 4

2. Race
The word "race", mean common descent, was introduced into English in about 1580, from the Old French rasse (1512), from Italian razza, which may have been derived from the Arabic Word "ras" meaning the head of someone or something.
The etymology can be further traced back to Latin gens or Arabic "genat" meaning clan, stock or people and genus meaning birth, descent, origin, race, stock, or family, and cognate with Greek genos "race, kind," and gonos "birth, offspring, stock.
Race word is used by E. Fox in his book “Book of Martyrs” in 1570.

3. The term ‘race’ came into English usage in the seventeenth century and here too it was most forcefully articulated through Anglo- American projects of colonization in the New World.
The modern notion of ‘race’ thus has a complex genealogy, but it has been most forcefully advanced through the claim that it is a demonstrably scientific concept.

4. Introduction There are 2 school of thoughts about race.
According to one: race differentiation existed at the earliest stage of human revolution.
Second school of thought: They advocate a common evolution for all races, with differentiation developing relatively late.
The classification of human race is based on the possession of certain combinations of fixed, inherited traits.

5. Since all men possess highly developed nervous system, vertebrate backbones, erect posture, hair, hands, etc., the variations among men can be arise only in minor deviations of this basic pattern.
Thus, we find such traits as skin colour, eye colour, form and colour of hair, shape of nose, epicanthic fold, thickness of lips, protrusion of face, stature, shape of head, and other similar variations available for erecting a racial classification.

6. The physical characters are mainly of two kinds ; those which are readily apparent (stature, skin-colour, character of the hair, shape of the nose), and those which require more minute observation, usually with the assistance of instruments.
The distinction between races can be verified via tools and measurements of the height and length of the forehead, shape of the nose, shape of the cheek bones, form of the lips, shape of the eyes, color of the eyes, skin color, human height, shape of the human skull, length and height of the skull, bodily shape, body hair, hair color, etc.

7. Definitions
“Race denotes breed not culture”- G. Taylor, Environment, Race and Migration, 1947.
“We understand race to mean classification based on somatic characteristics affecting either the morphology or the physiology of the human body”- Vidal de la Blache, Principles of Human Geography, 1923.
“A race is valid biological concept. It is a group united by heredity. A breed or genetic strain or sub-species. It is not a valid socio-cultural concept”- Kroeber ,A.L., Anthropology.

8. Anthropologist: A race is a principal division of mankind, marked by physical characteristics that breed.
Cultural anthropologist: A race is a group of people with more or less permanent distinguishing characteristics to which person concerned attach certain interpretations.
Race has also been defined as a “ biological grouping within the human species, distinguished or classified according to genetically transmitted differences.

9. According to geographer Blache, a race is a great division of mankind, the members of which though individually varying are characteristic as a group by certain bodily features, which are transmitted by nature from one generation to another.
According to John H. Relethford, author of The Fundamentals of Biological Anthropology, race “is a group of populations that share some biological characteristics….These populations differ from other groups of populations according to these characteristics.”

10. Factors of evolution of human races
Trend of migration
Influence of Harmones
Biological Mutations and Selection
Climate Change
Racial Mixture
Geographical and Social Isolation

11. Fundamental Elements of Classification of Human Races
Two elements are important in classifying human races:
1. Phenotype: In the past, physical characteristics, such as colour of skin and hair type, were used to delineate three to five biological ‘races’ (Caucasoid, Negroid nad Mongoloid, and later Australoid, and American Indian).
This classification may include 8 or 9 geographical races if blood group and hereditary diseases taken into account.

12. Distribution of Human Skin Color

13. General Classification
The following divisions are generally accepted: Caucasoid (European); Negroid (African); Mongoloid (Asiatic or Oriental); Indic (Hindu); Australoid (Australian), Polynesian, Melanesian, Micronesian (sometimes these three are classed as Oceanic), and American Indian.
The spatial distribution and concentration of these races in a general way is Caucasoids in Europe, Mongoloids in Asia, and Negroid in Africa.

14. The Caucasoid race which is found not only in Europe but also along the northern belt of Africa, Asia Minor (Turkey), Iran to Baluchistan and Northern India.
The Mongoloid race is mainly found in the central, eastern and south-eastern parts of Asia and the western parts of Americas (Red Indian etc.), Arctic region (Eskimos in Canada, Greenland and Yakuts in Siberia). Or Mongoloids are clustering around the pacific and the Arctic Oceans.
The Negroids have main concentration to the south of Sahara desert in Africa, but they are also found in Indonesia (Pygmy group), New Guinea, Papua, Melanesia.
The Australoids- a mixture of Negroids and Dravidians (Southern India)- are largely concentrated in Australia, especially in the north and western parts of that continent.

15. 2. Genotype: There are following factors to affect this:
Mutation
Natural selection
Genetic drift
Sexual selection
Racial mixture

16. Color of Skin
Races are classified into white, yellow and black. ‘White’ people are actually pink; ‘black’ ones are brown. The so-called yellow, brown, and red races are all Monogoloid.
Moreover skin colour depends on the amount of pigment in the skin, and the depth of the blood capillaries under the skin. Some pigment is always present and those individuals who lack any pigment are called albino. Heavy pigmentation gives dark shades of brown. The little pigmentation and deep blood vessels results into yellow color as in the case of Mongoloid race.

19. Stature
Although stature is influenced by the quantity and quality of food one eats, it is nevertheless an inherited quality. Stature can be easily measured.
Stature
Body height
Race and habitat
Short cm
Pigmy of Africa, China, Japan, Peru & South India
Medium cm
Malaysia, East Sumatra & New Guinea
Tall cm
Mediterranean region & Australia
Very tall
Above 173 cm
Alpine region, England, Australia, Russia & Scotland

20. The shape of head
The shape of head is one the first parameters, used scientifically for the division of mankind into races. It is relatively easy to measure, and has a high degree of accuracy. The shape of the head, expressed as an index of breadth over length x100. It is known as the Cephalic Index. The index may be obtained by the following formula:
𝐶.𝐼.= 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑥 100 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
The resulting figures being most often divided into three categories. The index under 78.5 is considered a long head (Dolicho cephalic), 78.6 to 82.5 is medium (Meso cephalic), and more than 82.5 is broad head (Brachy cephalic)

21. The shape of face: It gives a variety of features
The shape of face: It gives a variety of features. The face may be long or broad, the chin jutting out or receding. Generally, the faces of the Chinese and Polish people have more horizontal dimensions or width of the face as against the narrowness of that of the Scandinavian or the Nilotic African.
The shape of nose: The width and height of the nose is also of great importance in the physical measurements of the various races. C.I. (index) enables to differentiate between long narrow noses (less than 70), medium noses (70-84) and short flat noses (over 84).
𝐶.𝐼.= 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑙 𝑥 100 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑜𝑠𝑒
Generally the noses of the European (nordic) are narrow, and those of Africans broad. Among the broadest nose, Negroes are the Khajji of the Niger Delta of West Africa; among the Caucasoids with narrowest nostrils are the Swedes.

22. Index Number
Nasal Shape
Less then 55
Hyper Leptorrhine
55 – 70
Leptorrhine
Mesorrhine
85 – 100
Platirrhine or Chamaerhine
More than 100
Hyper Chamaerrhine

23. Texture of hair
The hair appears to be the most useful character in classifying the main groups of mankind. Outside Europe and parts of Northern Asia the hair is black in colour, often with a reddish, brownish, or bluish tinge. The three main varieties of hair are the straight, wavy, and so-called woolly.
These three varieties are now termed leiotrichous, cymotrichous, and ulotrichous.
It must be remembered, however, that all intermediate conditions occur between these three types.

24. The eyes
Eye color can be classified in the same way as the skin colour. The upper fold of the Mongoloid eye droops over to give the impression of a slit- like opening. This is the epicanthic fold, and when it is more emphasised at the inner corner of the eye it tends to give the impression of an outward and upward slant, often accentuated because of the comparative absence of browridges and eyebrows in Mongoloids.

26. Face
The lower part of the face may project considerably (prognathous ) — this is what is termed a " low” feature, or there may be no projection of the face (orthognathous). These characters are dependent on the size of the jaws.

27. Characteristics of Major Races
Traits
Caucasoid
Mongoloid
Negroid
Skin colour
Pale reddish white to olive brown
Saffron to yellow brown, some reddish brown
Brown to brown-black, some yellow brown
Stature
Medium to tall
Medium tall to medium short
Tall to very short
Head form
Long to broad and short, medium high to very high
Predominantly broad, height medium
Predominantly long, height low to medium
Face
Narrow to medium broad, tends to high, no prognathism
Medium broad to very broad, malars high and flat, tends to medium high
Medium broad to narrow, tends to medium high, strong prognathism

28. Source: 1. Haddon, A.C. 1925; 2. Krogman, W.M. 1945
Hair
Head hair: colour, light blonde to dark brown; texture, fine to medium; form, straight to wavy
Body hair: Moderate to profuse
Head hair: colour, brown to brown black; texture, coarse; form, straight
Body hair: Sparse
Head hair: colour, brown black; texture coarse; form, light curl to wooly or frizzly
Body hair: Slight
Eye
Colour: light blue to dark brown; lateral eye-fold occasional
Colour: brown to dark brown, medial epicanthic fold very common
Colour: brown to brown black, vertical eye-fold common
Nose
Bridge: usually high; form: narrow to medium broad
Bridge: usually low to medium; form: medium broad
Bridge: usually low; form: medium broad to very broad
Body build
Linear to lateral; slender to rugged
Tends to be lateral; some linearity evident
Tends to be lateral and muscular
Blood group
More A than B
High in B
High in Rhe (cDe)
Source: 1. Haddon, A.C. 1925; 2. Krogman, W.M. 1945

29. Geographical distribution of human races

31. Caucasoid
The term Caucasian race (also Caucasoid, Europid, or Europoid) has been used to denote the general physical type of some or all of the populations of Europe, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, Western Asia (Middle East), Central Asia and South Asia.
Historically, the term has been used to describe the entire population of these regions, without regard necessarily to skin tone.
"Caucasoid race" is initially a term formerly used in physical anthropology to refer to people of a certain range of anthropometric measurements.
The Caucasoid peoples were usually divided in three groups on linguistic grounds, termed Aryan (Indo-European), Semitic (Semitic languages) and Hamitic (Berber-Cushitic-Egyptian).

32. Bushman
Bushmen are the indigenous people of southern Africa, whose territory spans most areas of South Africa, Zimbabwe, Lesotho, Mozambique, Swaziland, Botswana, Namibia and Angola.
The Bushmen are an important human race from the point of view of anthropological research, as they have provided a wealth of information for the fields of anthropology and genetics.

33. Negroid
Negroes in Anthropology refer to the Negroid race, one of the three great races, further divided into subtypes, the black people of sub-Saharan Africa.
The term has its roots in the Latin word niger (black) and the term is associated with the indigenous peoples of central and southern Africa.
According to Ashley Montagu, the neotenous structural traits in Negroids are characterized by flattish nose, flat root of the nose, narrower ears, narrower joints, frontal skull eminences, later closure of premaxillary sutures, less hairy, longer eyelashes, and cruciform pattern of second and third molars.
The term Negroid is commonly associated with notions of racial typology, and its usage is discouraged, as it is potentially offensive. Even so, the term ‘Negroid’ is still used in disciplines such as craniometry, epidemiology and forensic archaeology.

36. Negritoes
Negritoes are several ethnic groups spread over isolated packets all across Southeast Asia, consisting of 12 Andamanese tribes (mostly in Andaman & Nicobar Islands, India), 6 Semang tribes (Malaysia), the Mani tribe (Thailand), and the Aeta, Agta, Ati and 30 other tribes of the Philippines, though earlier reports mentioned their presence in Borneo.
In physical features they resemble the African pygmies including short stature, natural afro-hair texture and dark skin. Their features suggest a common origin for the Negritos and African pygmies, especially in the Andamanese tribes who have long been isolated from Asiatic and Indo-Aryan peoples, as no other living human population has experienced such long-lasting isolation from contact with other groups.
Typical Negrito features include short stature, very dark skin, woolly hair, scant body hair and occasional steatopygia (very large accumulation of fat in the buttock area, especially in females).

37. Mediterranean
They were prevalent in southern Europe, parts of Eastern Europe, most of North Africa, Northeast Africa, West Asia and parts of South Asia and in parts of Wales. They are characterized by moderate to short stature, long (dolichocephalic) or moderate (mesocephalic) skull, aquiline nose, dark hair, dark eyes and olive complexion.
In scientific debates on classification of distinct races, in 1870, Thomas Huxley argued that there were four basic racial categories, Xanthocroic, Mongoloid, Australoid and Negroid.
By the end of the nineteenth century Huxley's Xanthocroic group was reclassified as the Nordic race and his Melanochroi became the Mediterranean race.

39. Australoid
The Australoid race is a broad racial classification. They were described as having dark skin with wavy hair, in the case of Aboriginal Australians, or hair ranging from straight to kinky in the case of Papuan, Melanesian and Negrito groups.
Australoid peoples ranged throughout Australia, New Guinea, and Melanesia, as well as different parts of Oceania, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia, Indonesia, India, and the Southern Middle East.
Australoids have the largest brow ridges with moderate to large supraorbital arches, their hair is usually silky, black and wavy, they usually have large, heavy jaws and prognathism, and their skin is the color of chocolate and the irises are dark brown or black.

41. Xanthochroi
Xanthochroi, as described by Thomas Huxley, are the “white people” (also Caucasian) and they are characterized, at least in part, by the light pigmentation of their skin.
Various social constructions of whiteness have had implications in terms of national identity, consanguinity, religion, population statistics, racial segregation, public policy, affirmative action, eugenics, racial marginalization and racial quotas.
The term “white” has been used in disciplines including sociology, biology, medicine, biomedicine, politics, genetics, language, culture and law.

43. Polynesians
Polynesians or the Pacific Islanders, also known as Pacific People or Oceanics, describe the Austronesian inhabitants of the three major sub-regions of Oceania consisting of Polynesia, Melanesia and Micronesia.
Some examples of the ethnic groups that would be considered Pacific Islanders are the indigenous peoples of Hawaii, the Marianas, Samoans, Guamanian, Chamoru, Tahitians, Mariana Islanders, and Chuukese.
But the inhabitants of the islands and regions such as Russia’s Kuril Islands, Alaska's Aleutian Islands, Taiwan, Japan, Malaysia, and Indonesia are not included in this group of people.
The classification seems to be more geographical and political rather than related to the development of ethnic races or evolution of human races or Homo sapiens.

45. Mongoloid
The terms Mongoloid and Mongolic are used to describe people of East Asian, North Asian and Native American origin, and have their origin from the word Mongol.
The term is regarded by many people as potentially offensive. The usage may have originated by referring to the Mongol people of East Asia who invaded much of Eurasia during the 13th century and established the Mongol Empire.
Thomas Huxley used the term Mongoloid to include American Indians as well as Arctic Native Americans, apart from its general connotation.
The physical features of the Proto-Mongoloid were characterized as, a straight-haired type, medium in complexion, jaw protrusion, nose-breadth, and inclining probably to round-headedness.

46. Mongoloids C
These are the indigenous peoples of the Americas who are the pre-Columbian inhabitants of North and South America, their descendants, and many other ethnic groups, often also referred to as Native Americans, Aboriginals, First Nations, Indians (because of the historic mistake of Christopher Columbus, now disambiguated as the American Indian race), American Indians, Amerindians, Amerinds or Red Indians.
A migration of humans from Eurasia to the Americas took place via Bering Strait. The most recent point at which this migration could have taken place is 12,000 years ago. These early Paleo-Indians spread throughout North America and South America, and diversified into hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes.
Several parts of the Americas are still populated by the original, indigenous Americans. Countries such as Bolivia, Peru, Paraguay, Mexico, Guatemala, Colombia, and Ecuador, have sizable populations of these Indigenous peoples. About a thousand different indigenous languages are spoken by these Americans. Some indigenous peoples still live in relative isolation from Western society, and a few are still counted as uncontacted peoples or lost tribes.

48. Esquimaux/ Eskimo
Esquimaux or Eskimos are the indigenous peoples who inhabited the circumpolar region spanning from eastern Siberia (Russia), Alaska (United States), Canada and Greenland. Two main groups are referred to as Eskimos, Yupik and Inuit, and the Aleut, a third group, is related to Esquimaux.   The earliest known Eskimo cultures were Pre-Dorset Technology, a fully developed Eskimo culture that dates to 5,000 years ago. They evolved in Alaska from people using the Arctic small tool tradition, who had possibly migrated to Alaska from Siberia at least 2,000 to 3,000 years earlier, though they might have been in Alaska as far back as 10,000 to 18,000 years.   The word Eskimo is considered derogatory because it means "eaters of raw meat." In 1977, the Inuit Circumpolar Conference meeting in Barrow, Alaska, officially adopted Inuit as a designation for all circumpolar native peoples, regardless of their local view on an appropriate term.

51. THE END Thank you & really