1. Memory Construction “To Some Degree All Memory is False”

2. Memory Jigsaw Analogy
Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces.
People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory
Brain fills in the gaps for you like it does for our blind spot

3. Reconstructing Memories: Sources of Potential Errors – Why the details change over time
Two general areas that errors occur in memory reconstruction
Info stored before the memory occurred may interfere
Info stored after the memory occurred may interfere

4. Elizabeth Loftus (1944- ) Does research in memory construction
Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions
Demonstrated the misinformation effect

5. Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Affects eyewitness testimony
Elizabeth Loftis explains her experiments on Misinformation/attribution effect. (3 min)

6. Memory Distortion
Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas
Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information
Do politicians do this? How?
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas

7. Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Leading question:
“About how fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each other?”
Memory construction
Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars
Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?
Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?
Watch this study explained 1:20-5:35 (4 min)
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; Loftus; misleading information

8. Loftus Results Word Used in Question Average Speed Estimate smashed
collided
bumped
hit
contacted
41 m.p.h.
39 m.p.h.
38 m.p.h.
34 m.p.h.
32 m.p.h.
Hockenbury slides (Schulman)

9. MISINFORMATION
As Memory fades with time following an event, the injection of misinformation becomes easier.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event
Imagination Inflation occurs because visualizing something and actually perceiving it activates similar brain areas.

10. Schemas
Schemas – organized clusters of knowledge and info about particular topics.
What’s your schema for a dog?
Contribute to memory distortions when the info learned is inconsistent with previously learned schemas.
When unsure of a detail, you’ll rely on your schemas to fill in the gaps.

11. Eyewitness Testimony Scripts—type of schema
Mental organization of events in time
Example of a classroom script: Come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

12. Sources of Potential Errors
False Memory – distorted and inaccurate memory that feels completely real and is often accompanied by all the emotional impact of a real memory.
Source Confusion/Amnesia – true source of the memory (how, when, & where it was acquired) is forgotten.
Something you’ve heard or seen in a film or book is confused with something that really happened to you
Déjà vu – “already seen” something seems familiar but you’re unsure where you’ve encountered it before.

13. Eyewitness Testimony Recall not an exact replica of original events
What you recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources
Often fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas
Schema—mental representation of an object, scene or event
Example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.
Key words: eyewitness testimony; memory distortion; schemas; scripts

14. Factors that Influence Memory

16. Memory Construction: Children’s Recall

17. Children’s Testimony on Abuse
Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable
Children are very open to suggestions
As children mature their memories improve
“Doctor’s Visit” study – children misremembered 55% of the time when later questioned.
See examples from Frontline Documentary

18. Accurate Interviewing Methods
To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should:
Phrase questions in a way the child can understand
Have no prior contact with the child
Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers