1. FORGETTING & MEMORY CONSTRUCTION

2. Types of Amnesia ANTEROgrade Amnesia – Can’t form NEW Memories RETROgrade Amnesia – Can’t recall OLD memories

3. Memory Consolidation Physical process of a memory going from short-term memory to long-term memory If disrupted, the LTM does NOT form This happens in Retrograde Amnesia Sleep can aid in memory consolidation. Memory Consolidation is like Jello: At first it is fluid and easily changed or lost Given time, it will harden and be laid down by the brain (long- term potentiation)

4. Why do we forget? Forgetting can occur at any memory stage Retrieval from long-term memory Depending on interference, retrieval cues, moods, and motives, some things get retrieved, some don’t Long-term storage Some items are altered or lost Short-term memory A few items are both noticed and encoded Sensory memory The senses momentarily register amazing detail

5. Forgetting Theories Encoding failure Interference theories Motivated forgetting Decay

6. Forgetting as encoding failure Info never encoded into LTM Encoding X Long-term memory Encoding failure leads to forgetting Short-term memory

7. Encoding Failures People fail to encode information because: –It is unimportant to them –It is not necessary to know the information –A decrease in the brain’s ability to encode –Not paying attention to information

8. Demonstrating Encoding Failure A standard phone has 10 numbers with letters of the alphabet on them but not all 26 letters of the alphabet. Which don’t appear? –Q & Z What is the color of the top stripe of the American flag? Most wooden pencils are not round. How many sides do they typically have? In what hand does the Statue of Liberty hold her torch? 6

9. Which is the real penny?

10. Answer

11. Encoding Failures Even though you’ve seen thousands of pennies, you’ve probably never looked at one closely to encode specific features

12. Forgetting as Storage Failure

13. Decay Theories Memories fade away or decay gradually if unused Time plays critical role Ability to retrieve info declines with time after original encoding Average percentage of information retained 20 mins 1 hr 8 hrs 24 hrs 2 days 6 days 31 days Interval between original learning of nonsense syllables and memory test 100%

14. Decay Theory Biology-based theory When new memory formed, it creates a memory trace –a change in brain structure or chemistry If unused, normal brain metabolic processes erode memory trace Ability of people to retrieve memories from long ago with retrieval cues would show this is not always true.

15. Hermann Ebbinghaus The Forgetting Curve Studied forgetting using nonsense syllables Nonsense syllables are three letter combinations that look like words but are meaningless (ROH, KUF) Forgetting is at first rapid and then levels off over time.

16. Combatting The Forgetting Curve OVERLEARNING/ Spacing Effect More times he practiced a list of nonsense syllables on day 1, the fewer repetitions he required to relearn it on day 2. Said simply, the more time we spend learning new information, the more we retain. Mastery Learning helps ensure information will be available even under stress

17. Forgetting as retrieval failure Retrieval—process of accessing stored information Sometimes info IS encoded into LTM, but we can’t retrieve it Retrieval failure leads to forgetting Retrieval X Encoding Short-term memory Long-term memory

18. Tip of the tongue phenomenon TOT—involves the sensation of knowing that specific information is stored in long-term memory but being unable to retrieve it (Dumb & Dumber example)Dumb & Dumber example Can’t retrieve info that you absolutely know is stored in your LTM

19. Forgetting as Retrieval Failure: Interference

20. Interference Theories “Memories interfering with memories” This is ALWAYS BAD for recall Forgetting NOT caused by mere passage of time Caused by one memory competing with or replacing another memory Two types of interference

21. Two Types of Interference Types of Interference Retroactive Interference Proactive Interference

22. Retroactive Interference When a NEW memory interferes with remembering OLD information Example: When new phone number interferes with ability to remember old phone number

23. French 101 Mid-term exam Retroactive Interference Example: Learning a new language interferes with ability to remember old language F- Study French papier livreplume école Study Spanish papel libropluma escuela retroactive interference

24. Proactive Interference Opposite of retroactive interference When an OLD memory interferes with remembering NEW information Example: Memories of where you parked your car on campus the past week interferes with ability find car in its new spot today

25. Proactive Interference Example: Previously learned language interferes with ability to remember newly learned language F-

26. Review of Interference Theory Retroactive Interference (Backward Acting) –First Learn A, Then Learn B Recall A, B interferes Proactive Interference (Forward Acting) –First Learn A, Then Learn B Recall B, A interferes Retro & Pro refer to what you want to remember. Interference reflects competition between responses.

27. How to Combat Interference Study an hour before sleep and then minimize your exposure to new info. Studying as you fall asleep though is NOT helpful.

28. Motivated Forgetting Undesired memory is held back from awareness –Suppression—conscious forgetting –Repression—unconscious forgetting (Freudian)

29. Repression Part of Freud’s psychoanalysis Process of moving anxiety-producing memories to the unconscious Supposed means of protecting oneself from painful memories Not well-supported by research; stressful incidents are actually more likely to be encoded

30. Memory Construction “To Some Degree All Memory is False”

31. Memory Jigsaw Analogy Memories, rather than being like a video tape, are formed as bits and pieces. People may retrieve only some of the pieces of the memory Brain fills in the gaps for you like it does for our blind spot

32. Reconstructing Memories: Sources of Potential Errors – Why the details change over time Two general areas that errors occur in memory reconstruction 1.Info stored before the memory occurred may interfere 2.Info stored after the memory occurred may interfere

33. Elizabeth Loftus (1944- ) Does research in memory construction Has found that subjects’ memories vary based on the wording of questions Demonstrated the misinformation effect

34. Misinformation Effect Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event Affects eyewitness testimony Elizabeth Loftis explains her experiments on Misinformation/attribution effect. (3 min) Misinformation/attribution effect.

35. Memory Distortion Memory can be distorted as people try to fit new info into existing schemas Giving misleading information after an event causes subjects to unknowingly distort their memories to incorporate the new misleading information Do politicians do this? How?

36. Loftus Experiment Subjects shown video of an accident between two cars Some subjects asked: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Others asked: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Watch this study explained 1:20-5:35 (4 min)Watch this study explained Accident Leading question: “About how fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?” Memory construction

37. Loftus Results Word Used in Question Average Speed Estimate smashed collided bumped hit contacted 41 m.p.h. 39 m.p.h. 38 m.p.h. 34 m.p.h. 32 m.p.h.

38. MISINFORMATION As Memory fades with time following an event, the injection of misinformation becomes easier. –Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into one’s memory of an event Imagination Inflation occurs because visualizing something and actually perceiving it activates similar brain areas.

39. Schemas Schemas – organized clusters of knowledge and info about particular topics. What’s your schema for a dog? Contribute to memory distortions when the info learned is inconsistent with previously learned schemas. When unsure of a detail, you’ll rely on your schemas to fill in the gaps.

40. Eyewitness Testimony Scripts—type of schema –Mental organization of events in time –Example of a classroom script: Come into class, sit down, talk to friends, bell rings, instructor begins to speak, take notes, bell rings again, leave class, etc.

41. Sources of Potential Errors False Memory – distorted and inaccurate memory that feels completely real and is often accompanied by all the emotional impact of a real memory. Source Confusion/Amnesia – true source of the memory (how, when, & where it was acquired) is forgotten. –Something you’ve heard or seen in a film or book is confused with something that really happened to you Déjà vu – “already seen” something seems familiar but you’re unsure where you’ve encountered it before.

42. Eyewitness Testimony Recall not an exact replica of original events What you recall is a construction built and rebuilt from various sources Often fit memories into existing beliefs or schemas Schema—mental representation of an object, scene or event –Example: schema of a countryside may include green grass, hills, farms, a barn, cows, etc.

43. Factors that Influence Memory

45. Memory Construction: Children’s Recall

46. Children’s Testimony on Abuse Research has shown children’s testimony to be unreliable Children are very open to suggestions As children mature their memories improve “Doctor’s Visit” study – children misremembered 55% of the time when later questioned. See examples from Frontline DocumentaryFrontline Documentary

47. Accurate Interviewing Methods To promote accuracy with children’s testimony the interviewer should: –Phrase questions in a way the child can understand –Have no prior contact with the child –Use neutral language and do not lead or suggest answers