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TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Chapter 16
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Qualitative Taxonomies Marshall & Rossman Genres
Individual and lived experience genres (phenomenological, life histories, testimonia, etc.) Society and culture genres (ethnography, action research, etc.) Language and communication genres (narrative inquiry, content analysis, etc.)
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Eight Common Qualitative Approaches
Basic qualitative/interpretive Case study Content analysis Ethnography Grounded theory Historical Narrative inquiry Phenomenology
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Basic Qualitative/Interpretive Studies
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Basic Qualitative/Interpretive
How are events, processes, activities perceived by participants? Roots in social sciences Describes and interprets Understand participant views Identify patterns Uses multiple disciplinary lenses Variety of data collection techniques
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Basic Qualitative More simplistic than other approaches
Most common type of qualitative study May draw from diverse theoretical orientations Typically involves categorization and development of themes Often shorter in duration and researcher less intensely involved Often choice of beginning qualitative researchers
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Case Studies
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Case Study What are the characteristics of this particular entity, phenomenon, person, or setting? Roots in business, law, medicine Single unit (case) In-depth description Anchored in real life Multiple data collection techniques Holistic description Time intensive
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Case Study, Continued Unit is a single occurrence of something (a person, a group, a site, a process, a policy, a program, an institution, a community, etc.) Particularistic (focused on one thing) Descriptive (thick, rich description) Heuristic (provide insights) Unit may be unique or typical or selected for a variety of reasons
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Case Study is Bounded Unit is defined within specific boundaries
Known as a “bounded system” Phenomenon must be identifiable within a specific context (able to be bounded)
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Case Study vs. Single-Subject Research
Describe subjects’ entire range of behaviors and relationship of behavior to history and environment Single-Subject Focus on single behavior or limited range of behaviors
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Types of Case Studies Intrinsic – understand particular case that may be unique, may not represent other cases Instrumental – selected because it represents some other issue and is illustrative of the thing under investigation Collective – uses several cases as case is not idiosyncratic and multiple units provide better illumination
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Case Study Analysis Holistic analysis – analyzing the whole case
Embedded analysis – focusing on specific aspects of the case Multi-case analysis – analyzing across site Holistic ana
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Perspectives in Case Studies
Emic perspective – the “insider” perspectives of those who are part of the case Etic perspective – the “outsider” interpretations of the researcher
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Content Analysis Studies
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Content Analysis What meaning is reflected in these materials?
Roots in communication studies Uses written or visual materials or artifacts Describes the characteristics of the materials Can be qualitative or quantitative
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Examples of Purposes of Content Analysis
To identify bias, prejudice or propaganda in content To analyze types of errors To describe prevailing practices To discover levels of difficulty To study relative importance of or interest in
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Steps in Content Analysis
Specify what is to be investigated Select the media to observe Formulate initial categories Decide on a sampling plan Train coders if using coders Analyze materials
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Advantages of Content Analysis
Unobtrusive Generally do not need individual consent, permissions Easy to replicate
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Ethnographic Studies
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Ethnography What are the cultural patterns and perspectives of this group in this setting? Roots in anthropology Studies naturally occurring behavior of a group Focus on culture and societal behavior Describes beliefs, values and attitudes Data collection primarily observation Immersion in site important Holistic description of context and cultural themes
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Ethnography, Continued
Report is a cultural portrait Incorporates emic and etic perspectives Extended observation primary data Some interviewing and document review may be used No a priori hypotheses Participants called informants Sites are studied, not individuals Sociocultural interpretation
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Creswell’s Two Approaches
Realist ethnography More traditional approach Researcher tries to provide objective account Often written in third person Factual information and quotes presented Critical ethnography Study of marginalized groups Researcher takes advocacy perspective Value-laden orientation Attempts to challenge status quo, empower
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Other Identified Ethnographic Approaches
Autoethnography – self-examination in a cultural context Ethnographic case study – examination of a case within a cultural perspective Feminist ethnography – study of women and cultural practices Postmodern ethnography – study of particular challenges or problems of society Confessional ethnography – incorporates reflection on the role of the researcher in the culture Visual ethnography – uses audio-visual media to document and represent Online ethnography – study of cultures created through computer-mediated social interaction
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Grounded Theory Studies
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Grounded Theory How is an inductively derived theory about a phenomenon grounded in the data in a particular setting? Roots in sociology Inductively build theory about a practice or phenomenon “Grounded” in real world Cyclical process Data from interviews and observation Generally multiple participants or settings Coding process ends in description and presentation of theory and propositions
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Grounded Theory Studies
Personal, open-ended interview; primary data collection method Ask what happened, why, and what it means Choose individuals with same experience who can contribute to theory development Interview until reach data saturation – no new information is forthcoming Confirm or refute theory by interviewing those with different experience
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Grounded Theory Studies, Continued
Documentary materials and literature may be used Extant materials – not shaped by the researcher (e.g. diaries, letters) Elicited materials – researcher involved in participant writing (e.g. requesting internet survey)
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Grounded Theory Analysis
Cyclical constant comparative method Process of induction and verification Compare units of data with each other to develop tentative categories Examine relationships among categories to develop themes Results in conditional propositions and tentative theoretical propositions Additional data collected and compared Cycle continues until comparative analysis no longer provides new insights (theoretical saturation)
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Grounded Theory Analysis, Continued
Systematic approach (Corbin & Strauss) Constant comparative Open coding – develop major or core categories Axial coding – develop categories around core and create visual model (subcategories) Selective coding – develop hypotheses and propositions by bringing categories together in a theory
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Grounded Theory Analysis, Continued
Constructivist approach (Charmaz) Begins with sensitizing concepts (general ideas) From data develop in vivo codes using terms of participants Initial coding – sort data and attach labels to segments Initial memos – preliminary analytic notes Focused coding – significant codes used as basis for further coding with additional data Advanced memos – refining categories Theoretical coding – posit category relationships Theoretical concepts – adopt based on certain categories Diagramming – sort memos and integrate concepts Literature review after the fact
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Historical Research Studies
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Historical Research How can historical events and reports be interpreted? Roots in history Focus on the past Data from written documents, materials and artifacts Authenticate sources and determine consistency with other sources
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Historical Research Limitations
No choice over what materials survive over time Limited control over questions asked and measures applied Measure only those things witnesses remember or records contain No assumptions can be made because no records found
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Historical Research Sources
Primary sources – original documents, relics, remains, or artifacts or eyewitnesses (only mind of the observer comes between event and the user of the record) Secondary sources – the mind of a nonobserver comes between the event and the user of the record
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Evaluating Historical Sources
External criticism – is the information authentic? Internal criticism – what is the worth of the information?
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Advantages of Historical Research
No other way to investigate some questions Unobtrusive – researcher not directly involved Generally no need for permission Can be used to examine emotionally charged situations
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Narrative Research
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Narrative Research What is the story and its meaning as told through this person’s experience? Roots in humanities Focus on life stories Spoken or written stories Emphasizes sequence and chronology Collaborative re-storying Understand lived experience of individual or group
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Narrative Research, Continued
Can be any text or discourse Attempt to understand the perspective of the storyteller in the context of his/her life
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Types of Narrative Research
Autobiography – written by the researcher Biography – researcher writes about another Personal narrative – focuses on a single or multiple episodes Life story/history – portrays an entire life Oral history – recounts personal reflections of events and their causes and effects Testimonia – form of testimonial narrative with roots in Latin American perspectives
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Challenges Recollections change over time and may not accurately represent facts No clear rules for analysis Stories may be adapted to audience or shaped by listener
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Narrative Research Reporting
Stories situated within personal experiences, culture and history Uses chronological sequence Basic novel elements – beginning, middle, end; conflict, protagonist, plot, resolution
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Narrative Research Steps
Identify phenomenon Identify individual to learn from Collect stories and records Transcribe and retranscribe Analyze Build in past, present, and future Look for themes Re-story or retell the story Write a coherent story Validate its accuracy with the individual
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Phenomenological Studies
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Phenomenology What is the experience of an activity or concept from the perspectives of these particular participants? Roots in philosophy Concerned with essence of phenomenon Interprets meaning Includes investigator’s firsthand experience Interview data, typically multiple subjects Rich description of invariant structures
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Phenomenological Analysis
Horizontalization – identify significant statements Textual description – illuminate clusters of meaning and themes Structural description – illuminate the context that influences the experience Composite description – incorporates other descriptions and researcher’s own experience to convey overall essence
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Phenomenology Data Participants chosen because they have been through a particular experience Primary collection through personal unstructured interviews Questions focus on meaning Researcher must examine own biases and assumptions Bracketing (also referred to as epoche) – intentionally setting aside own experiences and suspending own beliefs Reduction – using reflection to derive an overall description of the meaning
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Other Qualitative Approaches
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Portraiture Seeks to join science and art
A ‘portrait’ shaped by interaction between researcher and subject Vivid portrayal reflects meaning from both perspectives Data from in-depth interviews and observations
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Critical Research Purpose to empower change by examining and critiquing assumptions Questions focus on power relationships and issues of race, class and gender Challenges the status quo May analyze texts, artifacts, communication forms
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Semiotics and Discourse Analysis
Study of linguistic units to look at relationship between words and their meaning Assumes no neutral text Views language as a social construction Focuses on verbal interaction
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Arts-based Research Fiction-based research, poetry, ethnodrama, musical portraiture, dance narratives, visual arts Use of stories, images, sounds and sensory approaches to present data Contends that representation in non-text forms more effective than words to convey emotional aspects
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Indigenous Research Driven by tribal knowledge and grounded in different ways of knowing Understanding of role of language in shaping thought and culture More reciprocal process Importance of cultural protocols Concept of relational knowledge, community ownership of knowledge
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