1. Structure of Predication
Meeting 5

2. Some administrative matters
Have U visited the blog and contributed something?
If no, you’d better start soon.

3. The basic structure of structure of predication is:
Subject + Predicate
But is it always like this?
What do you think?

4. The subject and predicate can be either of the following:
- a single word
- a word with accompanying function words
- a phrase, or
- one of the syntactic structures: modification, complementation, or coordination

5. Specifically the subject can be a structure of predication also which is defined as included clause
The predicate consists of a verb and a verb phrase in key position
Examples:
- Money talks
- Courtesy always pays
- The sun sets in the west

6. A predicate can be filled by a structure of complementation, such as:
- the snow was cold
- The clerk sold me the shirt
- My neighbour painted his house green
A predicate can also consist of a structure of coordination, such as:
- We walked and talked
- People either like this place or hate it

7. So we can temporarily conclude that: predicate has verb component in it either as a single verb though seldom or a more or less complex structure with the verb at its core or the heart of the matter.

8. Thus it needs to be clearly known that VERB is classified into seven heads:
- person
- tense
- phase
- aspect
- mode
- voice, and
- status

9. In terms of person, verb can be classified in common and third singular. Examples: the man walks, he feels, this looks good, the tall man in the car drives, eating candy causes tooth decay, what I want costs money, either his mistakes or his bad luck keeps him poor.

10. In terms of Tense, there are two tenses: common (present) and past (preterit). They are shown by the inflexion attached to the verbs: Common: base / base + (-s), while Past: (base + (-ed).
The be has its exceptional forms (is, am, are: present and was, were: past)

11. In terms of Phase, there are two phases: simple and perfect (have + past participle verb). Examples:
- I speak vs I have spoken
- We work vs We have worked

12. In terms of Aspect, there are three:
- simple: the verb is unmarked
- durative: be + base+ing
- inchoative: get+ present participle

13. In terms of Mode, it can be seen from:
- the modal auxiliaries + base form: must go, may come, should see,etc., and
- certain other auxiliaries + infinitive (to+base form): used to study, ought to come, have to go, etc.

14. In terms of Voice, there are two voices: Active and passive voices
In terms of Voice, there are two voices: Active and passive voices. Passive is formed by the aux. be + past participle verb or get+ past participle verb.
Examples:
- He kills he is killed/He gets killed
- They built a house A house was built
- We have done the work The work has been done

15. Can you analyze these two?
- The man was informed by his wife
- The man was informed about politics

16. In terms of status, verbs has four statues: affirmative, interrogative, negative, and negative interrogative. Examples:
- He is working He works
- He is not working He does not work
- Is he working? Does he work?
- Isn’t he working? Doesn’t he work?

17. What’s the difference between
Doesn’t he work? And
Does he not work?

19. Functions in the Verb Phrase (VP)
Head: V
Dependents:
Pre-head modifier: AdvP
Post-head modifier: AdvP/PP
(Post-head) complement: NP/PP/AdvP/clause

20. S
Subject:NP Tense:AUX Predicate:VP
head:V PtHdMod:AdvP
The boy has run very quickly S
Subject:NP Tense:AUX Predicate:VP
PrHdMod:AdvP V
The boy has very quickly run

21. Types of Complement in the VP
Direct Object: NP
Indirect Object: NP
Prepositional Phrase Complement (PPC): PP
Subject Predicative Complement (PCS): NP/AdjP
Object Predicative Complement (PCO): NP/AdjP
Post-head modifiers in VP are often referred to as adjuncts

22. Direct Object (DO) Function in VP
The direct object function is filled by NP
The dogs chased the cats.
If the direct object is a pronoun, the pronoun is in Accusative case form.
The dogs chased them. (*they)
In basic sentences, the direct object NP comes immediately after the verb
*The dogs chased [quickly] them.
Exception: if there is also an indirect object NP
The boy bought [the girl] an icecream.

23. Unlike PP complements in NPs and AdjPs the direct object (DO) NP is usually obligatory in English
The boy discovered the treasure.
The boy discovered it.
*The boy discovered.
The discovery of the treasure
The discovery

24. Indirect Object (IO) function in VP
Indirect object (IO) function is only filled by NP
IO follows V and precedes DO
I gave my brother [a new bicycle].
The IO pronoun is Accusative (or Reflexive)
Accusative IO I baked him a cake
Reflexive IO I baked myself a cake

25. Preposition Phrase Complement in VP (PPC)
a PP may fill a complement function in a VP
It may be the only complement
John relies on his friend.
It may follow an NP (DO) complement
John put [the book] on the table.
As with PP complements in an NP or AdjP, the choice of preposition is restricted by the verb.
relies on/*in/*from; believes in/*on/*about

26. Subjective Predicative Complement (PCS)
PCS is filled by NP or by AdjP
PCS comes directly after the verb
The PCS describes an attribute or property of the referent of the subject NP
Compare:
The man saw a doctor. (DO)
The man became a doctor. (PCS)
*The man saw very clever. (DO)
The man became very clever. (PCS)

27. Another property of PCS
If the PCS is a NP, it normally agrees with the subject NP
The gentleman is a lawyer.
The gentlemen are lawyers.
*The gentleman is lawyers.
*The gentlemen are a lawyer.
Only a limited set of verbs take an NP as PCS:
be, become, seem, look, resemble...

28. Tests to distinguish PCS from DO
Test 1 - Substitution
Marjorie looked a fright.
PCS can be NP or AdjP.
DO can only be NP.
Can you replace the NP with an AdjP?
Marjorie looked frightful /angry /very sad.
Therefore - PCS.

29. Tests to distinguish PCS from DO
Test 2 - Agreement
The doctor seems a nice man.
PCS must agree with the subject.
DO does not agree with the subject
The doctor saw a nice man/nice men.
Can you make the NP plural?
*The doctor seems nice men.
Therefore - PCS.

30. Objective Predicative Complement (PCO)
Similar to PCS in many respects, but a PCO describes an attribute of the DO of a sentence.
We consider him our leader.
Subj Verb DO PCO
The PCO function is filled by NP or AdjP.
We consider him very trustworthy.
An NP in the PCO function agrees in number with the DO phrase.
We consider them our leaders.

31. Distinguish PCO construction from IO construction
VP  V NP NP
We consider him our leader. (DO PCO)
We gave him our leader. (IO DO)
Substitute AdjP for NP if PCO
We consider him very stong.
Cannot substitute AdjP for NP if DO
*We gave him very strong.

32. Distinguish PCO construction from IO construction
VP  V NP NP
We consider him our leader. (DO PCO)
We gave him our leader. (IO DO)
DO NP and PCO NP agree in number
We consider him our leader. (singular)
We consider them our leaders. (plural)
No number agreement between IO and DO
We gave him our leader/leaders.
We gave them our leader/leaders.

33. Adjuncts
Post-head dependents which are not complements in a VP are adjuncts
Adjuncts are never obligatory
Adjuncts modify some aspect of the possible reference of the VP
Different types of phrases can act as an adjunct in a VP (XP is an abbreviation for an unspecified type of phrase)
Adjuncts can be fronted to pre-Subject

34. Sue slept very badly in the plane on Tuesday after the meeting
I left very quickly. (AdvP)
I left.
Very quickly I left.
I saw John on Tuesday. (PP)
I saw John.
On Tuesday I saw John.
Mary left the following day. (NP)
Mary left.
The following day Mary left.
Multiple adjuncts
Sue slept very badly in the plane on Tuesday after the meeting

35. Complements cannot be omitted (except in special cases)
I behave very badly. (COMP:AdvP)
*I behave ___. (incomplete - opposite meaning)
I put John on the ground. (COMP:PP)
*I put John ___.
Mary left her bag. (COMP:NP)
*Mary left ____.
Santa depends on Rudolph. (COMP:PP)
*Santa depends ___.

36. Complements precede adjuncts
John read [the book] carefully/in the lounge
*John read carefully/in the lounge [the book].
Exception: 'Heavy' DO NP may follow an adjunct phrase
John examined (very) carefully [every single document in the safe].

37. Summary Every phrase has a head A phrase may have dependents
Dependents may precede or follow the head
Dependents with a close semantic and syntactic relationship with the head are complements
In some phrases (e.g., VP) complements may be obligatory
Dependents which are freely added to a phrase to modify the head are adjuncts

38. End of slides