1. The Nature of Leadership
A social (interpersonal) influence between two or more persons who depend on each other to attain certain mutual goals in a group situation.
Leader versus manager
Leadership and management are not interchangeable.
Leadership is the accepted use of organizationally-derived and/or personal power to influence and motivate subordinates.
Management is process-oriented (planning, organizing, directing, and controlling) supervisory behavior.
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2. The Leadership Process
Consequences
(e.g., Suspicion,
Trust, Dislike,
Affection)
Context
Followers
Leader
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3. The Leadership Process (cont’d)
Leadership is a function of an interaction between the leader, the follower, and the situation.
L = ƒ [(Person)(Follower)(Situation)]
Leader-member exchange (LMX) theory
Leadership consists of stable dyadic relationships linking a leader with a follower.
In-group followers have high quality LMX relationships.
Out-group followers have low quality LMX relationships.
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4. Formal and Informal Leaders
An individual who is recognized by those outside the group as the official leader of the group.
One who is appointed or sanctioned by an organization to the role of leadership.
Informal leader
An individual whom members of the group acknowledge as their leader.
One who may or may not be sanctioned as a leader by those outside the organization.
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5. Leader Emergence Designated leader Emergent leader
The person placed in the formal leadership position by forces outside the group.
Emergent leader
The person who becomes a group’s leader by virtue of processes and dynamics internal to the group.
Possess or control critical and/or scarce resources needed by the organization.
Have the configuration of knowledge, skills, abilities matching the requirements of the current situation.
Have attained influential status through contributions (idiosyncrasy credits).
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6. Leadership as an Exercise of Influence
Sources and types of power
Reward power—the leader’s control of rewards and outcomes for subordinates.
Coercive power—the leader’s ability to punish or withhold rewards from subordinates.
Referent power—leader influence derived from the desire of subordinates to associate with the leader.
Expert power—leader influence based on the leader’s personal knowledge and its usefulness to the group.
Legitimate power—leader power granted by those who believe the leader has the “right” to influence them.
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7. The Leader-Follower Power Relationship
Follower Compliance •
Alienation & resistance
Calculative compliance
Identification
Internalization
Group Effectiveness
Follower satisfaction
Follower motivation
Follower performance
Leader
Influence/Power Tactic
(e.g., Use of Rationality)
—commitment
Effective leadership is more likely to occur when the leader’s influence flows out of rationality, expertise, moralistic appeal, and/or referent power.
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8. Influence-based Leadership Styles
Theory X and Theory Y leaders
Theory X leaders
Assume workers dislike work and are incapable of self-direction and self-control.
Use a highly controlling leadership style.
Theory Y leaders
Assume workers enjoy work and are capable of self-direction and self-control.
Use an involvement-oriented approach to leadership.
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9. Tannenbaum and Schmidt’s Leadership Continuum
Manager
makes
decision and
announces it.
Autocratic –
leader is
dominant
in making
decisions.
Free-Rein
followers are
free to choose,
leader becomes
passive.
“sells”
decision.
presents
ideas and
invites
questions.
tentative
decision
subject to
change.
problem, gets
suggestions,
makes decision.
defines
limits,
asks group
to make
permits
subordinates
to function
within limits
defined by
superior.
Use of Authority by the Manager
Area of Freedom for Subordinates
Boss-Centered Leadership
Participation
Subordinate-Centered Leadership
Low
High
Source: Modified from R. Tannenbaum and W. H. Schmidt. May–June How to choose a leadership pattern. Harvard Business Review, 167.
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10. Directive and Permissive Leadership Styles
Leadership Behavior and the Uses of Power
Low
High
Amount of
Leader
Direction
Amount of Employee Participation in Decision Making
Leader Decision-Making Power: High
Leader Directing Power: High
Directive
Autocrat 1
Leader Decision-Making Power: Low
Democrat 3
Leader Directing Power: Low
Permissive 2 4
Source: Modified from J. P. Muczyk and B. C. Reimann The case for directive leadership. Academy of Management Executive, 1:304.
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11. The Trait Approach to Leadership
Great man theory of leadership
The belief that some people are born to be leaders and others are not.
Leadership trait research
Physiological, demographic, personality, intellective, task-related, and social characteristics of effective leaders.
“The right stuff”?
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12. Leadership Trait Research (cont’d)
Core characteristics of leaders (Locke)
Drive—high level of effort and desire for achievement
Leadership motivation—intense desire to lead others
Honesty and integrity—commitment to the truth
Self-confidence—assurance in self, ideas, and ability
Cognitive ability—conceptually skilled and possessing good judgment
Knowledge of business—high degree of understanding about the company, industry, and technical matters
Other traits—charisma, creativity/originality, and flexibility/adaptiveness
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13. The Trait Approach to Leadership (cont’d)
Other leader traits
Sex and gender role
Males (or persons with masculine characteristics) emerge as leaders more frequently than females.
Men are more likely to be task-oriented and to adopt autocratic/directive leadership styles.
Women tend to be more interpersonal and relationship-oriented, and to use a democratic/participative leadership style.
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14. Behavioral Approaches to Leadership
The Ohio State studies identified two major sets of leader behaviors:
Consideration—a “relationship-oriented” leader behavior that is supportive, friendly, and focused on personal needs and interpersonal relationships.
Initiating structure—a “task-oriented” leader behavior that is focused on goal attainment, organizing and scheduling work, solving problems, and maintaining work processes.
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15. Behavioral Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)
The University of Michigan studies identified the behavioral characteristics of effective leaders:
Job-centered behaviors— supervisory activities such as planning, scheduling, and coordinating work activities.
Employee member-centered behaviors—consideration and support for organizational members.
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16. Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid®
High
Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid®
1,9 Accommodating (Yield and Comply) I support results that establish and reinforce harmony. I generate enthusiasm by focusing on positive and pleasing aspects of work.
9,9 Sound (Contribute and Commit) I support team action in a way that invites involvement and commitment. I explore all facts and alternative views to reach a shared understanding of the best solution. 9 8 7 6
5,5 Status Quo (Balance and Compromise) I endorse results that are popular but caution against taking unnecessary risk. I test my opinions with others involved to assure ongoing acceptability.
Concern for People 5 4
9,1 Controlling (Direct and Dominate) I expect results and take control by clearly stating a course of action. I enforce rules that sustain high results and do not permit deviation. 3
1,1 Indifferent (Evade and Elude) I distance myself from taking active responsibility for results to avoid getting entangled in problems. If forced, I take a passive or supportive position. 2 1
Low
Source: Adapted from R. McKee and B. Carlson The Power to Change, p.16. Copyright © 1999 by Grid International, Inc. Reproduced by permission of the owners. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Low
High
Concern for Production
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17. Situational (Contingency) Approaches to Leadership
Contingency theory of leadership
Different leadership styles are effective as a function of the favorableness of the leadership situation.
Creating a match of leadership style and situation:
Assessing the leader’s disposition toward others by using their least preferred co-worker (LPC) score.
Assessing situational favorableness
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18. Situational (Contingency) Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)
Contingency theory of leadership (cont’d)
Least preferred co-worker (LPC) score
High LPC scores = relationship-oriented leaders.
Low LPC scores = task-oriented leaders.
Situational favorableness
Favorable situations allow leaders more control/ influence over the group process.
Leader member relations, task structure, leader position power
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19. Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Leader-Situation Matches
Performance
Favorable
Good
Poor
Moderate
Unfavorable
Good
Poor
High
Low
Strong
Weak
Leader-Member
Relations
Task Structure
Leader
Position Power 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Task Motivated
Relationship Motivated
Source: Adapted from F. E. Fiedler and M. M. Chemers Leadership and effective management. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman.
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20. Situational (Contingency) Approaches to Leadership (cont’d)
Path-Goal theory
Leadership is path- and goal-oriented.
Effective leaders provide organizational members with a path to a valued goal.
Different leadership styles are effective as a function of the task confronting the group.
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21. The Path-Goal Leadership Model
Subordinate Outcomes
Motivation
Satisfaction
Performance
Leader Behavior
Supportive
Directive
Participative
Achievement-Oriented
Situational Forces
Work Environment
Subordinate Characteristics
Combine
to Influence
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22. Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leader Behavior
Source: Leadership in organizations by G. A. Yuki. Copyright © Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ
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23. Substitutes for and Neutralizers of Leader Behavior (cont’d)
Source: Leadership in organizations by G. A. Yuki. Copyright © Reprinted by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ
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24. Transformational, Visionary, and Charismatic Leadership
Transformational leader
A leader who moves and changes things “in a big way” by inspiring others to perform the extraordinary.
Charisma, individualized consideration, intellectual stimulation, inspirational motivation
Visionary leader
An individual who is capable of influencing others through an emotional and/or intellectual attraction to the leader’s dream for that which “can be.”
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25. Transformational, Visionary, and Charismatic Leadership (cont’d)
Charisma—a special personal magnetic charm or appeal that arouses loyalty and enthusiasm in a leader-follower relationship.
Charismatic leader—a person who possess legitimate power that arises from “exceptional sanctity, heroism, or exemplary character.”
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26. Leadership Needs in the 21st Century
The magnitude of change will demand:
More leadership
Newer forms of leadership
Tomorrow’s leaders
Strategic opportunists
Global/cultural/diversity awareness
Decentralized managers
Interpersonally competent
Builders of organizational communities
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