1. Educational Research: Fundamentals for the Consumer
Sixth Edition
Woolfolk / Perry
Child and Adolescent Development
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

2. Research Problems, Variables, Questions, and Hypotheses
Chapter 2

3. Discussion Topics Research problems Quantitative research problems
Variables
Hypotheses
Qualitative research problems

4. Research Problems
One or more sentences indicating the goal, purpose, or overall direction of the study
General characteristics
Implies the possibility of empirical investigation
Identifies a need for the research
Provides focus
Provides a concise overview of the research

5. Research Problems Two ways of stating the problem Research problems
typically a rather general overview of the problem with just enough information about the scope and purpose of the study to provide an initial understanding of the research
Research statements
more specific, focused statements and questions that communicate in greater detail the nature of the study

6. Research Problems A general research problem
The purpose of this study is to investigate the attitudes of high school students to mandated drug testing programs
Specific statements and questions
This study examines the differences between males’ and females’ attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs.
What are the differences between freshmen, sophomore, junior, and senior students’ attitudes toward mandated high school drug testing programs?

7. Research Problems Researchable and non-researchable problems
Researchable problems imply the possibility of empirical investigation
What are the achievement and social skill differences between children attending an academically or socially oriented pre-school program?
What is the relationship between teachers’ knowledge of assessment methods and their use of them?

8. Research Problems Researchable and non-researchable problems
Non-researchable problems include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions, and value-based concerns
Is democracy a good form of government?
Should values clarification be taught in public schools?
Can crime be prevented?
Should physical education classes be dropped from the high school curriculum?

9. Research Problems Quantitative problems Qualitative problems Specific
Closed
Static
Outcome oriented
Use of specific variables
Qualitative problems
General
Open
Evolving
Process oriented

10. Research Problems Sources of research problems
Investigator’s interests and experiences
The use of formative tests in a statistics class
The use of technology in a research class
Applying theory
The effectiveness of math manipulatives
The effectiveness of a mastery approach to learning research

11. Research Problems Sources of research problems Replication of studies
Checking the findings of a major study
Checking the validity of research findings with different subjects
Checking trends or changes over time
Checking important findings using different methodologies
Clarification of contradictory findings

12. Quantitative Research Problems
Identifies three specific elements
The type of research design
The variables of interest and the relationships between or among these variables
The subjects involved in the study

13. Quantitative Research Problems
Variables
A variable is a label of name that represents a concept or characteristic that varies (e.g., gender, weight, achievement, attitudes toward inclusion, etc.)
Conceptual and operational definitions of variables

14. Quantitative Research Problems
Conceptual and operational definitions of variables
Conceptual (i.e., constitutive) definition: the use of words or concepts to define a variable
Achievement: what one has learned from formal instruction
Aptitude: one’s capability for performing a particular task or skill
Operational definition: an indication of the meaning of a variable through the specification of the manner by which it is measured, categorized, or controlled
A test score
Income levels above and below $45,000 per year
The use of holistic or phonetic language instruction

15. Quantitative Research Problems
Three types of variables defined by the context within which the variable is discussed
Independent and dependent variables
Extraneous and confounding variables
Continuous and categorical variables

16. Quantitative Research Problems
Independent and dependent
Independent variables act as the “cause” in that they precede, influence, and predict the dependent variable
Dependent variables act as the effect in that they change as a result of being influenced by an independent variable
Examples
The effect of two instructional approaches (independent variable) on student achievement (dependent variable)
The use of SAT scores (independent variable) to predict freshman grade point averages (dependent variable)

17. Quantitative Research Problems
Extraneous and confounding variables
Extraneous variables are those that affect the dependent variable but are not controlled adequately by the researcher
Not controlling for the key-boarding skills of students in a study of computer-assisted instruction
Confounding variables are those that vary systematically with the independent variable and exert influence of the dependent variable
Not using counselors with similar levels of experience in a study comparing the effectiveness of two counseling approaches

18. Quantitative Research Problems
Continuous and categorical variables
Continuous variables are measured on a scale that theoretically can take on an infinite number of values
Test scores range from a low of 0 to a high of 100
Attitude scales that range from very negative at 0 to very positive at 5
Students’ ages

19. Quantitative Research Problems
Continuous and categorical variables
Categorical variables are measured and assigned to groups on the basis of specific characteristics
Examples
Gender: male and female
Socio-economic status: low middle, and high
The term level is used to discuss the groups or categories
Gender has two levels - male and female
Socio-economic status has three levels - low, middle, and high

20. Quantitative Research Problems
Continuous and categorical variables
Continuous variables can be converted to categorical variables, but categorical variables cannot be converted to continuous variables
IQ is a continuous variable, but the researcher can choose to group students into three levels based on IQ scores - low is below a score of 84, middle is between 85 and 115, and high is above 116
Test scores are continuous, but teachers typically assign letter grades on a ten point scale (i.e., at or below 59 is an F, 60 to 69 is a D, 70 to 79 is a C, is a B, and 90 to 100 is an A

21. Quantitative Research Problems
Criteria for evaluating – problems should . . .
Be researchable
Be important
Indicate the type of research
Specify the sample
Specify the variables
Be clear

22. Quantitative Research Problems
Hypotheses
Hypotheses are tentative statements of the expected relationships between two or more variables
There is a significant positive relationship between self-concept and math achievement
The class using math manipulatives will show significantly higher levels of math achievement than the class using a traditional algorithm approach

23. Quantitative Research Problems
Reasons for using hypotheses
To provide specific focus
To provide for the testing of the relationships between variables
To direct the investigation
To allow the investigator to confirm or not confirm relationships

24. Quantitative Research Problems
Reasons for using hypotheses
To provide a framework for reporting the results and explanations deriving from them
When supported, provides empirical evidence of the predictive nature of the relationships between variables
To provide a useful framework for organizing and summarizing the results and conclusions

25. Quantitative Research Problems
Two types of hypotheses
Inductive and deductive
Inductive hypotheses are formed through inductively reasoning from many specific observations to tentative explanations
Deductive hypotheses are formed through deductively reasoning implications of theory

26. Quantitative Research Problems
Two types of hypotheses
Research or statistical
Research hypotheses are conjectural statements of the expected results
Directional
Non-directional
Statistical hypotheses are statements of a relationship or difference that can be tested statistically
Null hypothesis
Alternative hypothesis

27. Quantitative Research Problems
Criteria for evaluating research hypotheses
Stated in declarative form
Consistent with known facts, prior research, or theory
Logical extension of the research problem
States an expected relationship between two or more variables
Can be tested
Is clear and concise

28. Qualitative Research Problems
Identifies a central phenomena (i.e., an issue or process) being investigated
Examples of issues
Drug abuse in high schools
Teacher burnout
Alienation of children with special needs
Examples of processes
How teachers change to standards-based curricula
How students react to high stakes testing programs
How students incorporate teachers’ expectations into their studies

29. Qualitative Research Problems
Characteristics
Includes a single, central phenomena
Open-ended
General in nature
Evolving, that is, problems change as data is collected and reflected upon
Foreshadowed problems
Emerging and reformulated questions
Neutral with respect to what will be learned
No predictions
No expected outcomes

30. Qualitative Research Problems
Criteria for evaluating - problems should . . .
Not be too general or too specific
Be amenable to change as data are collected and analyzed
Not be biased with restrictive assumptions or desired findings
Be written in “how” and “what” forms to focus on describing the phenomena
Include a central question as well as the participants and the site