1. Modules 19 and 20 in the NEW EDITION are different
Modules Learning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Learning by Observation
NOTE:
Modules 19 and 20 in the NEW EDITION are different

2. Review: classical and operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Associative learning
Learning that CS signals pending US
Learning that a behavior and its consequences go together
What kind of behavior?
Respondent behavior: occurs automatically
Operant behavior: behavior operates on the environment and produces consequences
Consequ-ences of conditioning
Behavior is repeated IF CS is given, in anticipation of the US
Frequency of a behavior is changed in anticipation of its consequence
What is the process of acquisition?
A CS is associated with an US to produce CR.
Behavior is shaped by reinforcers (primary & secondary) and punishers: reinforcement strengthens the behavior, punishment weakens it.
What may happen after acquisition?
Extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalization, discrimination.

3. PROBLEM

4. How to weaken a behavior: Punishment
A punisher decreases the frequency of the preceding behavior
An unpleasant or undesirable stimulus will powerfully reduce unwanted behavior
How can we punish?
Positive punishment: Provide an unwanted stimulus
Negative punishment: Take away a desired or wanted stimulus

5. Problems inherent in punishment
Punishment teaches to suppress unwanted behavior – does not teach WHY it is unwanted
Difficult to generalize
Punishment results in discriminative learning
It is OK to cheat in a test but not in a PSYC100 test
Punishment may result in fear
Of the unwanted behavior and the person administering the punishment
Punishment only teaches what not to do
Reinforcements teaches what to do

6. Important: Reinforcers and punishers are defined by their effects on behavior, not by your intentions
At bedtime the parents tell the child it is time to turn off the TV and go to bed.
The child starts screaming and throwing a temper tantrum.
The mom is worried about the racket and does not want to deal with the temper tantrum. She scolds the child for being noisy and grabs him by the arms and says to stop right now.
Child carries on the screaming.
Mom says fine, he can watch for another 15 minutes but only this once!
The next evening, it is bedtime again…

7. Is there a role of cognition in operant conditioning? YES!
Animals and people also learn through experience, without reinforcement
Rats develop a cognitive map of a maze  if a reward, rat finds it quickly
Latent Learning: learning that occurs, but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Rewards may not work
If intrinsic motivation exists, rewards may diminish the response
What is intrinsic v.s. extrinsic motivation?

8. Are biological predispositions important? YES!
It is much easier to teach a behavior that is in the repertoire of an animal’s natural behaviors.
It is harder or impossible to teach a behavior that is not even similar to the behaviors that are in the repertoire of an animal.

9. Current applications of operant conditioning
At school: computerized learning programs
At work: employee reward programs
At home: helping children behave
Do not cave in to negative behavior: temper tantrums, whining, protests

10. Module 20: Learning by Observation
Learning by observing and imitating others =
Learning by modeling

11. Physiological basis of observational Learning
Observational learning is a function of mirror neurons
Neurons in the frontal lobe that are activated when we perform certain actions OR when we observe someone else performing them
Athletes already know this
Mirror neurons also help develop empathy (theory of mind)
Seeing a loved one’s physical or emotional pain

12. Albert Bandura’s work with observational learning (1925- )
First set of experiments with children on social (observational) learning
Observing aggression lowers inhibition
Observing aggression leads to an imitation of aggression
We observe behavior AND its consequences (rewards and punishments)
We are especially likely to imitate the behavior of “relevant” models
Those who are similar
Those who are successful or admirable

13. Types of observational learning
Positive observational learning: learning of prosocial behaviors
Learning of morality and conscientious behavior
Negative observational learning: learning of antisocial behaviors
Intergenerational transmission of violence
Media and gender roles
Media and aggression  There is a CAUSAL relation between exposure to media violence and being violent or accepting violence.

14. Media and violence Very high exposure to media models
9 years of your life before age 75
6 of 10 TV programs feature violence
74% of violence goes unpunished
58% does not show the victim’s pain
50% documented “justification”
50% had an attractive perpetrator
By the age of 12, children watch 8,000 murders and 100,000 acts of assorted violence
We become desensitized to seeing violence
We have less sympathy for the victims of violence (rape and abuse)
We have less moral reaction against the perpetrators