1. Critical Reading of Non-Fiction Reading through Lenses

2. The Lenses
Rhetorical Situation: Exigence, Audience, Purpose
The Appeals: Ethos, Pathos, Logos
Arrangement: What comes after what and why?
Functional Structure: Oration Model and Toulmin Model
Modes: from Aristotle
Style: Schemes and Tropes
Discourse Markers: Road signs for reading a text
Expectation: What do you expect? What do you see?

3. Form = Function!

4. Is there an all purpose format for organizing, arranging or structuring that will work for most or all writing situations? If so, what is it and how does it work? If not, why not?

5. What is the difference between analyzing the arrangement of a composition according to its structural parts and its functional parts? If you believe that form follows function, which perspective is more important to learn?

7. What is Exigence?

9. What is an enthymeme? en·thy·meme ˈenTHəˌmēm/ nounLOGIC
an argument in which one premise is not explicitly stated.

10. Examples of enthymemes???

11. More Enthymemes in a political context . . . .
Major Premise: Only political outsiders have an ability to reinvent America.
Enthymeme? (implied premise?)
Conclusion: Donald Trump has the ability to reinvent America.
Major Premise: Only a political insider with experience governing political institutions has the ability to reinvent America.
Enthemyme? (implied premise?)
Conclusion: Hillary Clinton has the ability to reinvent America.

12. Amazing, isn’t it, this fervent interest still in one old ballplayer
Amazing, isn’t it, this fervent interest still in one old ballplayer? Why, I’d suggest that if you took every argument about who belongs in each of the sports halls of fame in the world, there would be more discussion involving Pete Rose than all the other candidates put together.
So now there’s a big fuss because Rose is finally admitting what everybody who is not in the Flat Earth Society already knows: that, when he was a manager, he bet on baseball. Having properly propitiated, Rose may again be embraced by Holy Mother Baseball and then accepted into the warm folds of the shrine at Cooperstown.
Or not.
Either way, many true believers will be absolutely furious.
Rose inspires such strong opposing feelings, I believe, because he so perfectly represents extremes. His divide is too stark, too much to bear.
On the one hand, there is no question that in his personal life he’s a scoundrel with a notorious demeanor that seemed almost bound to eventually land him behind bars. On the other, in his uniformed station, he was all that we could ever want a hero to be. At a time when we are so disappointed in sports stars, finding them cold and greedy, distant and disloyal, Rose is remembered as an athletic paragon, playing every moment of every game to the hilt. He even ran to first base on walks, remember? The cool sophisticates mocked Rose, christening him Charlie Hustle—but he turned that sneer into a noble badge. It was not just that he loved the game he played so well. Just watching him, he made us love baseball more.
Alas, in every phase of his life, his passion always bled into compulsion. The late Richie Ashburn became an announcer with the Phillies after his playing career ended. I’ll never forget asking Ashburn about Rose after the latter had spent his first season with the Phillies. “Yes, let me tell you about Pete Rose,” Richie said. “If ever Pete took one drink at lunch, he would be an alcoholic by nightfall. It doesn’t matter what: baseball, gambling, women. Rose is the most obsessive man I’ve ever met.”
And, until now, of course, he was just as obsessive about sticking to a lie that was so terribly transparent. Ultimately, just as Rose’s enthusiasm made those watching him more enthusiastic about baseball, so did his obstinacy make others just as stubborn about giving in to him.
In the end, we are all—however we feel—just so angry at Rose. That’s the crux. And, invariably, it is the people who love baseball the most who are most torn. If we support Rose’s claim to the Hall of Fame, we’re furious that he’s tarnished his brilliance so by malfeasance and deceit. Yet if we find him unbearable and unworthy, maybe it pains us more because we know that it is precisely this curious, flawed creature who, better than anyone who ever played the game of baseball, played it as we wish everyone did.
No one can meet Pete Rose halfway. Just as he never met life.

13. Questions on Rose’s Thorns . . .
What is the rhetorical situation? What is DeFord’s exigence and who do you think his primary intended readers are?
2. What is DeFord’s intention, aim or purpose? What does he intend this column to do with and for the readers?
3. What is the logos of the central idea in this column? How would you describe it using the enthymeme? (See examples of enthymemes. )
How does the text appeal to DeFord’s ethos? What specific examples can you cite that show him to be an intelligent, good willed, generally good person?
How would you characterize DeFord’s persona? How does that persona contribute to the text’s appeal to ethos?
How does the text appeal to pathos? What emotions and interests of the audience does it seem to be playing upon?

14. Arrangement How is the essay and its individual paragraphs arranged?
Essays usually have a beginning, middle, and an end, but within that framework writers structure their arguments for an intended purpose and effect.

15. The Classical Oration
The introduction (EXORDIUM) introduces the reader to the subject under discussion. In Latin, exordium means “beginning a web,” which is an apt description for an introduction. Whether it is a single paragraph or several, the introduction draws the readers into the text by piquing their interest, challenging them, or otherwise getting their attention. Often the introduction is where the writer establishes ethos.

16. The narration (NARRATION) provides factual information and background material on the subject at hand, thus beginning the development paragraphs, or establishes why the subject is a problem that needs addressing. The level of detail a writer uses in this section depends largely on the audience’s knowledge of the subject. Although classical rhetoric describes narration as appealing to logos, in actuality it often appeals to pathos because the writer attempts to evoke an emotional response about the importance of the issue being discussed.

17. The confirmation (CONFIRMATION), usually the major part of the text, includes the development or the proof needed to make the writer’s case — the nuts and bolts of the essay, containing the most specific and concrete detail in the text. The confirmation generally makes the strongest appeal to logos.

18. The refutation (refutation), which addresses the counterargument, is in many ways a bridge between the writer’s proof and conclusion. Although classical rhetoricians recommended placing this section at the end of the text as a way to anticipate objections to the proof given in the confirmation section, this is not a hard-and-fast rule. If opposing views are well known or valued by the audience, a writer will address them before presenting his or her own argument. The counterargument’s appeal is largely to logos.

19. The conclusion (PERORATION) — whether it is one paragraph or several — brings the essay to a satisfying close. Here the writer usually appeals to pathos and reminds the reader of the ethos established earlier. Rather than simply repeating what has gone before, the conclusion beings all the writer’s ideas together and answers, the question, so what? Writers should remember the classical rhetoricians’ advice that the last words and ideas of a text are those the audience is most likely to remember.

20. A sample Classic Oration . . .
Sandra Day O’Connor – “Not by Math Alone”
Fierce global competition prompted President Bush to use the State of the Union address to call for better math and science education, where there’s evidence that many schools are falling short. We should be equally troubled by another shortcoming in American schools: Most young people today simply do not have an adequate understanding of how our government and political system work, and they are thus not well prepared to participate as citizens.

21. This country has long exemplified democratic practice to the rest of the world. With the attention we are paying to advancing democracy abroad, we ought not neglect it at home. Two-thirds of 12th graders scored below “proficient” on the last national civics assessment in 1998, and only 9 percent could list two ways a democracy benefits from citizen participation. Yes, young people remain highly patriotic, and many volunteer in their communities. But most are largely disconnected from current events and issues. A healthy democracy depends on the participation of citizens, and that participation is learned behavior; it doesn’t just happen. As the 2003 report “The Civic Mission of Schools” noted: “Individuals do not automatically become free and responsible citizens, but must be educated for citizenship.” That means civic learning — educating students for democracy — needs to be on par with other academic subjects.

22. This is not a new idea. Our first public schools saw education for citizenship as a core part of their mission. Eighty years ago, John Dewey said, “Democracy needs to be reborn in every generation and education is its midwife.” But in recent years, civic learning has been pushed aside. Until the 1960’s, three courses in civics and government were common in American high schools, and two of them (“civics” and “problems of democracy”) explored the role of citizens and encouraged students to discuss issues. Today those courses are very rare. What remains is a course on “American government” that usually spends little time on how people can – and why they should – participate. The effect of reduced civic learning on civic life is not theoretical. Research shows that the better people understand our history and system of government, the more likely they are to vote and participate in the civic life.

23. We need more and better classes to impart the knowledge or government, history, and participate in a democratic republic. And we also know that much effective civic learning takes place beyond the classroom – in extracurricular activity, service work that is connected to class work, and other ways students experience civic life. Preserving our democracy should be reason enough to promote civic learning. But there are other benefits. Understanding society and how we relate to each other fosters the attitudes essential for success in college. Work and communities; it enhances student learning in other subjects. Economic and technological competitiveness is essential, and America’s economy and technology have flourished because of the rule of law and the “assets” of a free and open society. Democracy has been good for business and for economic well-being. By the same token, failing to hone the civic tools of democracy will have economic consequences.

24. Bill Gates – a top business and technology leader – argues strongly that schools have to prepare students not only for college and career but for citizenship as well. None of this is to diminish the importance of improving math and science education. This latest push as well as the earlier emphasis on literacy, deserves support. It should also be the occasion for a broader commitment, and that means restoring education for democracy to its central place in school. We need more students proficient in math, science and engineering. We also need them to be prepared for their role as citizens. Only then can self-government work. Only then will we not only be more competitive but also remain the beacon of liberty in a tumultuous world.

25. Where do the parts of the Classic Oration apply in Sandra Day O’Connor’s essay?
Exordium: __________________?
Narration: __________________?
Confirmation: _______________?
Refutation: _________________?
Peroration: _________________?

26. The Toulmin Argument

27. Toulmin Argument Sample
Claim
You should use a hearing aid.
Grounds
Over 70% of all people over 65 have hearing difficulty.
Warrant
A hearing aid helps most people to hear better.
Backing
Hearing aids are available locally.
Qualifier
Hearing aids help most people.
Rebuttal
There is a support desk that helps with technical problems.

28. Why study the Toulmin model of argumentation?
1. The Toulmin model is logical.
2. It establishes the connection between evidence and the claim it supports.
3. It reveals assumptions that must be shared with the audience.
4. It is easy to apply.
5. It helps students analyze arguments.

29. Applied Practice for the Toulmin Model
Here is a sample Toulmin argumentation. The example provided will relatively help you get a clearer understanding of how this technique works.
"Smoking in Public Places Should be Banned"
Smoking in public places should be banned ( ) because it puts other people, especially children and pregnant women, at risk of breathing smoke from cigarettes ( ). Smoking in public places also endangers people who have respiratory ailments ( ) Recent studies show that almost ( ) 80% of those who ingest secondhand smoke from public smokers have a higher risk of getting respiratory problems than smokers themselves ( ).

30. Banning an act that causes problems to innocent civilians is helpful in many ways
( ). If smoking in public places is banned, we actually reduce or totally eradicate the danger of putting non-smokers at risk of developing lung and heart problems
( ). Moreover, if we ban smoking in public places, we also stop the smokers from further increasing their chances of acquiring health problems for themselves
( ).
While it can be said that not all people who smoke in public areas are always causing harm to others, it remains a fact that smoking per se is a cause of health problems ( ). It is not enough to say that the size of affected people are relatively just a small fraction; plenty or few, one person put at risk is more than enough ( ). It is only the case that smoking in public places, therefore, should be banned.

31. More Practice: The Toulmin Model of Argumentation
Using the Toulmin Model
Stephen Toulmin ( The Uses of Argument) provided a model of argument structure that
gives us a tool for both evaluating and making arguments. The main parts of Toulmin's
model are the claim (or conclusion), the grounds (also called the stated reason), and the
warrant (also called the unstated assumption in the case of enthymemes). Let’s examine
a few arguments.

32. 1. Initial argument: After-school sports programs are bad for teenagers because they
take away study time.
a. Claim: After school sports programs are bad for teenagers
b. Stated reason: they take away study time
c. Unstated assumption: [loss of study time is bad for teenagers]
2. Initial argument: After school sports programs are good for teenagers because
they teach responsibility, team work, and time management.
a. Claim:
b. Stated reason:
c. Unstated assumption:

33. 3. Initial argument: Aquatic turtles make good pets for children because they are
gentle.
a. Claim:
b. Stated reason:
c. Unstated assumption:
4. Initial argument Aquatic Turtle make bad pets because they can carry salmonella
poisoning

34. 5. Initial argument: Sid is a bad team captain because he is too bossy
a. Claim:
b. Stated reason:
c. Unstated assumption:
6. Initial argument: Sid is a good team captain because he is decisive in moments of
crisis.

35. 7. Initial argument: Cocaine and Heroin should not be legalized because legalization
would greatly increase the number of drug addicts.
a. Claim:
b. Stated reason:
c. Unstated assumption:
8. Unstated assumption Initial argument: Cocaine and heroin should be legalized
because legalization would eliminate the black market in drugs.

36. 9. Initial argument: Karate class is good for children because it promotes self
confidence.
a. Claim:
b. Stated reason:
c. Unstated assumption:
10. Initial argument: Karate class is bad for children because it encourages violence.

37. 11. Initial argument: Welfare benefits for unwed mothers should be eliminated
because elimination would greatly reduce the nation’s illegitimacy rate.
a. Claim:
b. Stated reason:
c. Unstated assumption:
12. Initial argument: Welfare benefits for unwed mothers should be retained in order
to prevent poverty and hunger

38. Patterns of Development / Modes of Discourse
Cause and Effect details why something happens, what causes it, what are the effects and how it is related to something else.
Classification and Division groups items into their parts or types.
Compare and Contrast tells how something is like other things or how something is different from other things.
Definition explains what something is in comparison to other members of its class, along with any limitations.
Description details what something looks like and its characteristics.
Exemplification provides typical cases or examples of something.
Narration describes what, when, and where something happened.
Persuasion describes an issue and your position or opinion on the subject.
Process explains how something happened, how it works or how it is made.

39. How are the Modes of Discourse used in our literate lives
How are the Modes of Discourse used in our literate lives? Consider the writing occasions for each of the modes.
Examples?

40. Name the type of discourse . . . .

41. Don Quixote” by Cervantes is a parody of Romance narratives that dealt with the adventures of a valiant knight. Unlike serious Romances, in “Don Quixote” the narrative takes a comical turn. . We laugh at how the Quixote was bestowed a knighthood in his battle with the giants [windmills]. We enjoy how the knight helps the Christian king against the army of a Moorish monarch [herd of sheep]. These and the rest of the incidents of the novel are written in the style of Spanish romances of the 16th century to mock the idealism of knights in the contemporary romances.

42. Since it was so chilly outside, Benjamin built up a big fire in his fireplace.

43. Different students attend various types of schools; however, they can usually be classified as either public, private religious, private non religious, or alternative. Public schools are funded by the state, and the majority of students in the United States attend them. Private religious schools are based around a particular faith, such as Catholicism, Judaism, and so forth. The religion is part of the every day lives of the students and they also learn about the faiths. All types of private schools do not receive state funding. Therefore, private non religious schools are simply just that: schools which do not receive state funding and have the ability to make their own rules. Alternative schools can be made up of a variety of different categories, such as the Montessori program or technical schools. Most students who attend class in an actual school building go to one of these types of institutions.

44. What is it like to transition from elementary to middle school
What is it like to transition from elementary to middle school? That is a question many kids ask each year. Having experienced both, I can tell you that there are plenty of similarities as well as some very big differences between the two types of schools.

45. “As I passed through the gates I heard a squeaky voice
“As I passed through the gates I heard a squeaky voice. A diminutive middle-aged man came out from behind the trees — the caretaker. He worked a toothbrush-sized stick around in his mouth, digging into the crevices between algae’d stubs of teeth. He was barefoot; he wore a blue batik shirt known as a buba, baggy purple trousers, and an embroidered skullcap. I asked him if he would show me around the shrine. Motioning me to follow, he spat out the results of his stick work and set off down the trail.”

46. “It is impossible to love, and be wise … Love is a child of folly
“It is impossible to love, and be wise … Love is a child of folly. … Love is ever rewarded either with the reciprocal, or with an inward and secret contempt. You may observe that amongst all the great and worthy persons…there is not one that hath been transported to the mad degree of love: which shows that great spirits and great business do keep out this weak passion…That he had preferred Helena, quitted the gifts of Juno and Pallas. For whosoever esteemeth too much of amorous affection quitted both riches and wisdom.”

47. How to Remove Chewing Gum from Hair
Prepare an ice sack. Place several cubes of ice in a plastic bag or thin cloth. Seal or hold it closed. Apply ice pack to hair. Move the affected hair away from the scalp and press the ice against the gum for 15 to 30 minutes or until the gum freezes solid. Use a rubber glove or a dry washcloth to hold the ice compress if your hand becomes chilled. Crack the frozen gum into pieces. With one hand, hold the stuck section of the hair between the gum clot and the scalp, and break the frozen gum into small pieces. Remove the gum. Gently pull the frozen gum pieces from the hair using your other hand. If the warmth of your hand begins to melt the gum, refreeze and repeat until all the gum has been removed from the hair.

48. Television takes away time that should be devoted to homework
Television takes away time that should be devoted to homework. When my sister gets home from school, she will immediately flip the television on, leaving her homework for later. When she finally decides to do her homework, the television will remain on, and she will sit on the couch with her books propped up in front of her, giving it only half of her attention. Homework takes longer to complete, and it probably will not be her best work since only half of her concentration was focused on it. Television also takes time away from quality family time. Most adolescents do not have a strong family connection. Families whose only time together is at the dinner table will waste precious quality time with their heads turned towards the television. The youth of today lose the strong morals and values they can get when spending time with their family. Television can even take away time from friends. When I spend time with my friends, I like to talk with them or go out. When my sister spends time with her friends, they spend the whole day watching the television. Their conversation revolves around what they are watching on the television. Most teens have the majority of their day devoted to the television.

49. What is a Yankee?
To most of the world, a Yankee is an American, anybody who lives in the United States. It is not always a pleasant connotation; in fact, "Yankee, go home!" calls up images of angry Latin American mobs protesting the oppression of American imperialist policies. To most Americans, though, the word Yankee means either the pin-striped New York baseball team or the Northern forces in the American Civil War, the soldiers from north of the Mason-Dixon Line. In time, though, the idea that the word Yankee suggests has shrunk geographically until it is on the verge of extinction.

50. Schemes
Schemes are figures of speech that deal with word order, syntax, letters, and sounds rather than the meaning of the words.

51. Schemes Involving Balance (most common)
Parallelism of words: Exercise physiologists argue that body-pump aerobics sessions benefit a person’s heart and lungs, muscles and nerves, and joints and cartilage.
Parallelism of phrases: Exercise physiologists argue that body-pump aerobics sessions help a person breathe more effectively, move with less discomfort, and avoid injury.
Parallelism of clauses: Exercise physiologists argue that body-pump aerobics is the most efficient exercise class, that body-pump participants show greater gains in stamina than participants in comparable exercise programs, and that body-pump aerobics is less expensive in terms of equipment and training needed to lead or take classes.

52. Each of the above is also called a zeugma, a figure in which more than one item in a sentence is governed by a single word, usually a verb. Each of the above involves the single verb, argue, that introduces a list of three words, phrases, or clauses.
A related scheme involving balance is antithesis, in which parallelism is used to juxtapose words, phrases, or clauses that contrast. With an antithesis, a writer tries to point out to the reader differences between two juxtaposed ideas rather than similarities:
Antithesis of words: When distance runners reach the state they call the zone, they find themselves mentally engaged yet detached.
Antithesis of phrases: When distance runners reach the state they call the zone, they find themselves mentally engaged with their physical surroundings yet detached from moment-to-moment concerns about their conditioning.
Antithesis of clauses: When distance runners reach the state they call the zone, they find that they are empirically engaged with their physical surroundings, yet they are also completely detached from moment-to-moment concerns about their conditioning.
FAMOUS EXAMPLE: “To err is human; to forgive, divine.” Alexander Pope, master of the heroic couplet, 1688 –1744.

53. Schemes Involving Interruption
Sometimes, a writer needs to interrupt the flow of a passage in order to provide necessary, on-the-spot information or ideas to readers. Two schemes are especially useful for this purpose:
parenthesis: Sports night at the school always brings out the would-be jocks – who would expect any different? – ready to show that they’re potentially as good as the varsity players. An exclamation point could take the place of the question mark but not a period or comma.
appositive: Joe Weider, a pioneer in personal weight training, would marvel at the facilities open to today’s student athletes.

54. Schemes Involving Omission
A writer occasionally needs to omit material from a sentence so that its rhythm is heightened and often accelerated and so that the readers will pay close attention to the potentially dramatic effect of the prose.
ellipsis: In a hockey power play, if you pass the puck to the wing, and he to you, then you can close in on the goal. (The words passes it are missing but understood.)
asyndeton: I skated, I shot, I scored, I cheered – what a glorious moment of sport! (Note the omission of conjunction and between related clauses.)

55. Schemes Involving Repetition – “Don’t be repetitive, but use repetition.” Leads the reader to pay closer attention to the prose and to see the writer as purposeful, forceful, even artistic.
Alliteration: Intramural hockey is a strenuous, stimulating, satisfying sport.
Assonance: A workout partner is finally a kind, reliable, right-minded helper.
Anaphora (repetition of same group of words at beginning of clauses): Exercise builds stamina in young children; exercise builds stamina in teenagers and young adults, exercise builds stamina in older adults and senior citizens.
Epistrophe (repetition of same group of words at end of successive clauses): To become a top-notch player, I thought like an athlete, I trained like an athlete, I ate like an athlete.
Anadiplosis (repetition of last word of one clause at the beginning of following clause): Mental preparation leads to training, training builds muscle tone and coordination; muscle tone and coordination, combined with focused thinking, produce athletic excellence.
Climax (repetition of words, phrases, or clauses in order of increasing number or importance): Excellent athletes need to be respectful of themselves, their teammates, their schools, and their communities.

56. Tropes
Tropes are figures of speech with an unexpected twist in the meaning of words.

57. Tropes Involving Comparison
Metaphor: Many an athletic contest is lost when the player’s mind is an idling engine.
Simile: An athlete’s mind must be like a well-tuned engine, in gear and responding to the twists and curves of the contest. (This sentence begins w/ simile and ends with implied metaphor.)
Synecdoche (a part of something used to refer to the whole): We decided we could rearrange the gym equipment if everyone would lend a hand.
Metonymy (an entity referred to by one of its attribute s): The central office announced today new regulations for sports nights.
Personification: After almost three periods of searching, the puck finally found the goal.
Periphrasis (puh-RI-frah-suhs – a descriptive word or phrase used to refer to proper name): The New York Yankees and the New York Islanders vie to be the best hockey team in the Big Apple.

58. Tropes Involving Word Play
Pun (used to attract reader’s attention): The tipped-but-caught third strike, ending a bases-loaded rally, was a foul most foul.
Anthimeria (one part of speech, usually a verb, substitutes for a noun): When the Little Leaguers lost the championship, they needed just to have a good cry before they could feel okay about their season.
Onomatopoeia: The puck whizzed and zipped over the ice, then clattered into the goal.

59. Tropes Involving Overstatement or Understatement
Hyperbole: He couldn’t make that shot again if he tried a million times.
Litotes (LYE-tuh-tees): Shutting out the opponents for three straight games is no small feat for a goaltender.

60. Tropes Involving the Management of Meaning
Irony (words meant to convey the opposite of literal meaning): Their center is over seven feet tall – where do they come up with these little pipsqueaks?
Sarcasm (bitter irony): Thanks for everything you did for us tonight (when he really did nothing).
Oxymoron (words with contradictory meaning placed side-by-side): When you have to face your best friend in competition, whoever wins feels an aching pleasure.
Rhetorical Question (question designed not to secure an answer but to move the idea forward and suggest a point): Hasn’t the state of intercollegiate athletics reached the point where the line between professionalism and amateurism is blurred?

61. What are Discourse Markers?
. . . a word or phrase whose function is to organize discourse into segments.