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Chapter 5
Learning
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2. Classical Conditioning
Learning Outcomes
Describe the basics of classical conditioning and how they relate to learning
Give examples of applying conditioning principles to human behavior
Explain extinction
Discuss stimulus generalization and discrimination
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3. The Basics of Classical Conditioning
Learning: a relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience
Classical conditioning: a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that response
Pavlov’s experiment
We are primed for learning from the beginning of life. Infants exhibit habituation, which is the decrease in response to a stimulus that occurs after repeated presentations of the same stimulus. For example, a baby becomes excited at the sight or sound of a new toy, but after repeated exposure, becomes less so.
Mention the phrase “classical conditioning” and immediately, the mind retrieves the most famous experiment known: that of Pavlov’s dogs. While studying secretions of stomach acids and salivation in dogs, Pavlov noticed that the mere sight of the person who normally brought food, or the sound of his footsteps, was enough to produce salivation in the dogs.
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4. The basic process of classical conditioning
(A) Before conditioning, the ringing of a bell does not bring about salivation—making the bell a neutral stimulus. In contrast, meat naturally brings about salivation, making the meat an unconditioned stimulus and salivation an unconditioned response. (B) During conditioning, the bell is rung just before the presentation of the meat. (C) Eventually, the ringing of the bell alone brings about salivation. We now can say that conditioning has been accomplished: the previously neutral stimulus of the bell now is a conditioned stimulus that brings about the conditioned response of salivation.
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5. The basic process of classical conditioning
Neutral stimulus: before conditioning, this stimulus does not naturally bring about the response of interest (bell)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response, without having been learned (meat)
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6. The basic process of classical conditioning
Unconditioned response (UCR): natural, innate, reflexive response; unlearned (salivation to meat)
Conditioned stimulus (CS): once the neutral stimulus, it has been paired with a UCS to bring about a response formerly caused only by the UCS (bell)
Conditioned response (CR): a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus (salivation to the bell)
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7. Applying Conditioning Principles to Human Behavior
Human behavior is also learned through classical conditioning, particularly emotional responses, such as fear
Watson & Rayner’s experiment to classically condition Little Albert to show fear of a rat
Neutral stimulus = rat
UCS = loud noise
UCR = fear of the noise
CS = rat
CR = fear of the rat
While learning by classical conditioning is common in childhood, it also occurs in adulthood. A person could avoid a dentist in adulthood because of prior associations of pain. Alternatively, a person could have very pleasant associations with the scent of a particular perfume.
Classical conditioning explains many of the reactions (both good and bad) that we have to stimuli in the world around us.
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Extinction
Extinction: a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears
Spontaneous recovery: the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and no further conditioning
Acquisition, extinction, and spontaneous recovery of a classically conditioned response. A conditioned response (CR) gradually increases in strength during training (A). However, if the conditioned stimulus is presented by itself enough times, the conditioned response gradually fades, and extinction occurs (B). After a pause (C) in which the conditioned stimulus is not presented, spontaneous recovery can occur (D). However, extinction typically reoccurs soon after.
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9. Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus generalization: a conditioned response follows a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus; the greater the similarity, the greater the likelihood for generalization
Stimulus discrimination: if two stimuli are sufficiently different from each other that one brings about the conditioned response but the other does not
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Operant Conditioning
Learning Outcomes
Define the basics of operant conditioning
Explain reinforcers and punishment
Present the pros and cons of punishment
Discuss schedules of reinforcement
Explain the concept of shaping
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11. The Basics of Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning: learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened (more likely to recur regularly) or weakened (less likely to recur regularly), depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences
Operant conditioning involves voluntary responses; classical conditioning involves involuntary/natural/biological responses.
The inspiration for a whole generation of psychologists studying operant conditioning was one of the 20th century’s most influential psychologists, B. F. Skinner. He was interested in specifying how behavior varies as a result of alterations in the environment.
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12. The Basics of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement: the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
Reinforcer: any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
Primary reinforcer
Secondary reinforcer
Reinforcement is the central concept of operant conditioning. Bonuses, toys and good grades can serve as reinforcers if they strengthen the probability of the response that occurred before their introduction.
In many respects, reinforcers can be thought of in terms of rewards, but rewards are limited to positive occurrences. Reinforcers can be positive and negative in nature.
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13. Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment
Positive reinforcer: a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response
Negative reinforcer: an unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in a preceding response
Punishment: a stimulus that decreases the probability that a preceding behavior will happen again
Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment. Negative reinforcement teaches the individual that taking an action removes the negative condition that exists in the environment. This increases the likelihood that preceding behaviors will be repeated.
Punishment reduces the likelihood of a prior response. There are two types of punishment: positive and negative. Positive punishment weakens a response through the application of an unpleasant stimulus (spanking a child for misbehaving). Negative punishment removes something pleasant (grounding a teenager for breaking curfew).
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Positive punishment: adding an unpleasant stimulus to the environment
Negative punishment: removing a pleasant stimulus from the environment
**Reinforcement (positive or negative) = increasing desired behavior; punishment (positive or negative) = decreasing undesired behavior
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15. The Pros and Cons of Punishment: Why Reinforcement Beats Punishment
Punishment can be effective, but there are also disadvantages
Frequently ineffective if not delivered soon after undesirable behavior
Physical punishment can send message of approval & even encouragement of physical aggression in other situations
Sometimes difficult for punisher to control the degree/amount of physical punishment…“in the heat of the moment”
In short, the research findings are clear: reinforcing desired behavior is a more appropriate technique for modifying behavior than using punishment (Hiby, Rooney, & Bradshaw, 2004; Sidman, 2006).
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16. Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards
Schedules of reinforcement: different patterns of frequency & timing of reinforcement following desired behavior
Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs (learning occurs more rapidly)
Partial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior some (but not all) of the time it occurs (behavior lasts longer after reinforcement stops)
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17. Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards
Fixed-ratio schedule: reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made (ex.: rat receives a food pellet every 10th time it presses a lever)
Variable-ratio schedule: reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses (ex.: telephone salesperson’s job)
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18. Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards
Fixed-interval schedule: reinforcement provided only if a fixed time period has elapsed; overall response rates relatively low (ex.: weekly paycheck)
Variable-interval schedule: time between reinforcements varies around some average (ex.: giving surprise quizzes that vary from every three days to every three weeks)
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19. Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally
Shaping: the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
First, reinforce any behavior that is remotely similar to the desired behavior
Then reinforce only responses that are closer to the desired behavior
Then reinforce only the desired behavior
Each step in shaping moves only slightly beyond the previously learned behavior, permitting the person to link the new step to the behavior learned earlier.
Shaping allows even lower animals to learn complex responses that would never occur naturally (lions jumping through hoops, rodents finding landmines).
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20. Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning
Shaping: The process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
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21. Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Learning Outcomes
Explain latent learning and how it works in humans
Discuss the influence of observational learning in acquiring skills
Describe research findings about observational learning and media violence
Cognitive learning theory: focuses on the thought processes (cognitions) that underlie learning
Not all learning is due to operant and classical conditioning.
Some psychologists view learning in terms of the thought processes (cognitions) that underlie it. They do not deny the importance of classical and operant conditioning. They have developed approaches that focus on the unseen mental processes that occur during learning, rather than concentrating solely on external stimuli, responses and reinforcements.
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Latent Learning
Latent learning: Learning in which a new behavior is acquired but is not demonstrated until some incentive is provided for displaying it
Cognitive map: mental representations of spatial locations and directions
In its most basic formulation, cognitive learning theory suggests that it’s not enough to say that people respond because there is an assumed link between a stimulus and a response. Instead, people develop an expectation that they will receive a reinforcer after making a response.
There are two types of learning in which no obvious prior reinforcement is present: latent learning and observational learning.
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23. Observational Learning: Learning Through Imitation
Observational learning: learning by watching the behavior of another person (model) (Albert Bandura, the “social cognitive approach”)
What role might mirror neurons (discussed in chapter 2) play in observational learning? According to psychologist Albert Bandura, a major part of human learning consists of observational learning.
Observational learning is particularly important in acquiring skills in which the operant conditioning technique of shaping is in appropriate. Examples of situations in which shaping would be inappropriate include piloting an airplane or performing brain surgery.
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Violence in Television and Video Games: Does the Media’s Message Matter?
Research supports the claim that watching high levels of media violence makes viewers more susceptible to acting aggressively
One study found one-fourth of violent young male offenders had attempted a media-inspired copycat crime
Media violence can lower inhibitions against aggression, distort understanding of the meaning of others’ behavior, & desensitize us to violence
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