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Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity

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1 Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity
16 Making a Living Anthropology: The Exploration of Human Diversity 11th Edition Conrad Phillip Kottak

2 Making a Living Adaptive Strategies Foraging Cultivation Pastoralism
Modes of Production Economizing and Maximization Distribution Exchange Potlaching

3 Adaptive Strategies The advent of food production fueled major changes in human life, such as formation of larger social and political systems-eventually states

4 Adaptive Strategies Yehudi Cohen used term “adaptive strategy” to describe a group's system of economic production Developed typology of societies based on correlation between economies and social features.

5 Adaptive Strategies Yehudi Cohen Includes five adaptive strategies:
Foraging Horticulture Agriculture Pastoralism Industrialism

6 Foraging All foraging economies have relied on nature to make their living Animal domestication and plant cultivation began 10,000 to 12,000 years ago in Middle East All modern foragers live in nation-states, depend to some extent on government assistance, and have contacts with food-producing neighbors

7 Foraging Foraging survived mainly in environments that posed major obstacles to food production

8 Foraging Correlates of Foraging
Correlations—association or covariation between two or more variables People who subsist by hunting, gathering, and fishing often live in band-organized societies Band—small group of fewer than 100 people

9 Foraging Typical characteristic of foraging societies is mobility—people may shift band membership several times in a lifetime Fictive Kinship—personal relationships modeled on kinship

10 Foraging All human societies have some kind of division of labor based on gender Men typically hunt and fish Women gather and collect All foragers make social distinctions based on age

11 Cultivation Horticulture—cultivation that makes intensive use of none of the factors of production: land, labor, capital, and machinery Use simple tools Field not permanently cultivated Slash-and-burn cultivation Shifting cultivation

12 Cultivation Agriculture
Cultivation that requires more labor than horticulture does, because it uses land intensively and continuously Domesticated animals Many agriculturalists use animals as means of production

13 Cultivation Irrigation Terracing
Makes it possible to cultivate a plot year after year Capital investment that usually increases in value Terracing Labor necessary to build and maintain a system of terraces is great

14 Cultivation Costs and Benefits of Agriculture
Long-term yield per area is far greater and more dependable Agriculture societies tend to be more densely populated than are horticultural ones

15 Cultivation The Cultivation Continuum
Intermediate economies, combining horticulture and agricultural features, exist Horticulture always uses a fallow period whereas agriculture does not

16 Cultivation Intensification: People and the Environment
Intensive cultivators are sedentary people Agricultural economies grow increasingly specialized—focusing on one or a few caloric staples, such as rice, and on the animals that are raised and tended to aide the agricultural economy

17 Cultivation Agricultural economies also pose a series of regulatory problems—which central governments often have arisen to solve

18 Pastoralism Pastoralists—herders who activities focus on such domesticated animals as cattle, sheep, goats, camels, and yak

19 Pastoralism Pastoralists
Herders attempt to protect their animals and to ensure their reproduction in return for food and other products Herders typically make direct use of their herds for food

20 Pastoralism Pastoralists
Before the Industrial Revolution, pastoralism almost totally confined to the Old World Pastoral Nomadism—members of pastoral society follow herd throughout the year Transhumance—part of group moves with herd, but most stay in the home village

21 Modes of Production Economy—system of production, distribution, and consumption of resources Mode of production—way of organizing production; “set of social relations through which labor is deployed to wrest energy from nature using tools, skills, organization, and knowledge” (Wolf, 1982)

22 Modes of Production Societies represent each adaptive strategy tend to have similar mode of production

23 Modes of Production Production in Nonindustrial Populations
Division of economic labor related to age and gender a cultural universal, but specific tasks assigned to each sex and age varies Betsilio of Madagascar have 2 stages of teamwork in rice cultivation

24 Modes of Production Yehundi Cohen’s Adaptive Strategies
Insert Table 16.1

25 Modes of Production Means, or Factors, of Production—include land, labor, technology, and capital Land Land less permanent among foragers than it is for food producers Among food producers, rights to means of production also come through kinship and marriage

26 Modes of Production Labor, tools, and specialization
In nonindustrial societies, access to land and labor comes through social links Some tribal societies do promote specialization

27 Modes of Production Alienation in Industrial Economies
When factory workers produce for sale and for their employer's profit, rather than for their own use, they may be alienated from the items they make Don't feel strong pride in or personal identification with products Industrial workers have impersonal relations with products, coworkers, and employers

28 Economizing and Maximization
How are production, distribution, and consumption organized in different societies? What motivates people in different cultures to produce, distribute or exchange, and consume? Anthropologists view both economic systems and motivations in a cross-cultural perspective

29 Economizing and Maximization
Economizing—rational allocation of scarce means (or resources) to alternative ends

30 Economizing and Maximization
Idea that individuals choose to maximize profits basic assumption of classical economist of 19th century Still held by some modern economists

31 Economizing and Maximization
Others recognize that individuals may be motivated by other goals Maximize profit Wealth Prestige Pleasure Comfort Social Harmony

32 Economizing and Maximization
Alternative Ends Throughout world, people devote some of their time and energy to building up subsistence fund Citizens of nonindustrial states also allocate scarce resources to a rent fund, resources that people render to an individual or agency that is superior politically or economically

33 Economizing and Maximization
Alternative Ends Peasants—small-scale agriculturalists who live in nonindustrial states and have rent fund obligations Live in state—organized societies Produce food without elaborate technology Pay rent to landlords

34 Distribution, Exchange
The Market Principle "Organizational process of purchase and sale at money price" (Dalton 1967) Value set by law of supply and demand Redistribution Operates when goods, services, or their equivalent, move from local level to a center

35 Distribution, Exchange
Reciprocity Exchange between social equals, normally related by kinship, marriage, or close personal tie Dominant in more egalitarian societies Three degrees of reciprocity Generalized Balanced Negative

36 Distribution, Exchange
Reciprocity Generalized reciprocity—giving with no specific expectation of exchange Balanced reciprocity—exchanges between people who are more distantly related than are members of the same band or household Negative reciprocity—dealing with people outside or on the fringes of their social systems

37 Distribution, Exchange
Coexistence of Exchange Principles In North America, market principle governs most exchanges

38 Potlatching Festive event within a regional exchange system among tribes of the north Pacific Coast of North America Some tribes still practice the potlatch Potlatches traditionally gave away food, blankets, pieces of copper, or other items Potlatches traditionally gave away food, blankets, pieces of copper, or other items

39 Potlatching If profit motive universal, how does one explain the potlach, in which wealth is given away? Potlaching and intervillage exchange had adaptive functions, regardless of motivation of individual participants Potlaching also served to prevent the development of socioeconomic stratification, a system of social classes

40 Potlatching Location of Potlaching Groups Insert Figure 16.5

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