1. Women and Work

2. Aspects of Making a Living  Managing resources  Managing Labor  Production  Distribution

3. Resources  Recognition of resources  Knowledge about resources  Control over resources

4. Labor  Social reproduction (producing prospective laborers)  Control over labor  Division of labor Universally by sex and gender Part-time economic specialization Full time economic specialization Peasantry Castes

5. Production of Goods and Services  Kinds of products Goods Services Status Social cohesion Emotional support  Tools used  Work patterns Social vs individual Task oriented vs time oriented

6. Distribution of Goods and Services  Generalized Reciprocity = sharing what you have with the expectation that others will share what they have with you Within households Within kin groups Within bands Within fictive kin networks  Balanced Reciprocity = trade or barter (no$)  Redistribution = a designated leader gathers surpluses and redistributes them throughout the group or region  Market System = the use of a general purpose money to facilitate economic specialization

7. Subsistence Technologies Lifestyles Based on Work Foraging/Hunting and Gathering Pastoralism Horticulture Agriculture Peasant Economies Industrialization

8. Foraging/Hunting & Gathering (Nisa, !Kung San)  Depend on naturally occurring plant and animal resources without caring for or replenishing them  Contemporary groups live in marginal environments not wanted for farming  Small bands ( most common size 30-50 individuals)  Mobile (nomadic or semi-nomadic)  “Fission and Fusion” common  Simple technology (carrying containers, digging stick, spear)  Division of labor by sex and age only  Generalized reciprocity with some balanced reciprocity  Egalitarian  Lack of gender stratification  Situational leadership, consensus decision making

9. Pastoralists (Masai Women)  Depend on herd animals for their primary subsistence  Live in marginal environments not wanted for farming  Tribal groups in the 100’s  Mobile (nomadic or semi-nomadic)  “Fission and Fusion” common  Simple technology  Division of labor by sex and age  Generalized reciprocity and Balanced reciprocity  Egalitarian  Pronounced gender stratification  Headman or Senior Kinsman leads in all situations

10. Horticulturalists (Yanomamo, Traditional Samoa)  Depend on farming with hand tools only for their primary subsistence  Tribal groups in the 100’s, Chiefdoms in the 1000’s  Sedentary in villages  Simple technology (machete, axe, digging stick, spear)  Division of labor by sex and age, some part-time economic specialization  Generalized reciprocity and Balanced reciprocity or Redistribution if a surplus is produced  Egalitarian if no surplus, Ranked if a surplus is produced  Gender stratification varies  Headman or Senior Kinsman leads in all situations in tribe (leads by persuasion only), Chief leads in all situations in Chiefdom (leads by enforcement)

11. Agriculture with Peasants (Feudal Europe, Mexico before the Revolution)  Depend on labor intensive farming with plow, terracing, irrigation  States in the 10,000’s  Sedentary in towns and cities with rural subsistence support  Complex technology  Market system with general purpose money and economic specialization  Stratified with peasant class providing agricultural labor  Pronounced gender stratification  Elected official, hereditary succession or leadership by force

12. Extensive Agricultural (China)  Depend on farming with advanced technologies including plow, terracing, irrigation or machinery for primary subsistence  States in the 10,000’s and up  Sedentary in towns and cities  Labor intensive crops such as rice that are difficult to do with plows and machinery  Market system with general purpose money  Division of labor by full-time economic specialization  Stratified (economic classes)  Pronounced gender stratification  Elected official, hereditary succession or leadership by force

13. Industrialized Agriculture (The United States)  Depend on labor intensive farming with plow, terracing, irrigation, machinery  States in the 10,000’s and up  Sedentary in towns and cities, VERY small percentage of population engaged in farming  Complex technology  Market system with general purpose money  Full-time economic specialization  Stratified  Pronounced gender stratification  Elected official, hereditary succession or leadership by force

14. Ward’s Categories of Specialized Women’s Work Home-work Mother-work Kin-work Sex-work Marriage as work Body work Status enhancement work Emotional and nurturance work

15. Some Terminology from Ward Essentialists (nature) vs Relativists (nurture) Value work vs Exchange value work Western family wage ideologies The “Third Shift” or The “Time Bind”

16. Overview of Theories Marx Conflict over resources Eisenstein Add patriarchy Vogel Add reproduction of mode of production Ward Applies World Systems theory that adds imposition of capitalism = gender stratification Engels Civilization = gender stratification Sacks Social labor = social adulthood Rosaldo Maternally-based division of labor Weber Gender stratification behavior follows ideology Sanday -Inner Oriented ( women sacred) vs Outer Oriented (women dangerous) societies. Male dominance associated with technological complexity, migration, conflict and dangerous situations Ortner Women are nature, Men are culture, culture must control nature Freud/Kittay Womb envy Social Learning Theory