1. Unit 2.1
The Reformation

2. Overview of the Reformation
Beginning of modern Europe; profoundly influenced development of western civilization
Protestantism adopted by states in Northern Europe
Religious enthusiasm rekindled
Catholic Counter Reformation responded to Protestant challenge, with some success
Destroyed religious unity of W. Europe & initiated period of devastating religious wars in 16th & 17th centuries

3. I. The Protestant Reformation
Causes of the Reformation
1. Crises of the Later Middle Ages hurt the prestige of the Church
a. Babylonian Captivity, 14th century
b. Great Schism,
c. Failure of the Conciliar Movement in 15th and early th centuries

4. 2. Corruption:
a. simony: sale of church offices
b. pluralism: church officials holding two offices at one time
c. absenteeism: an official not participating in benefices but receiving payments and privileges
d. sale of indulgences: people paid the Church to absolve their sins or sins of their loved ones
e. nepotism: favoring family members in the appointment of Church offices
f. moral decline of the papacy: certain popes and priests had sexual affairs
g. clerical ignorance: illiteracy rampant

5. 3. Critics of the Church: emphasized a
3. Critics of the Church: emphasized a personal relationship with God as primary
a. John Wyclif ( ): England
Stated the Bible was the sole authority
Stressed personal communion with God
Diminished the importance of the sacraments
Translated the Bible into English
His followers were Lollards

6. Public Domain Wikipedia Commons

7. Ideas influenced by Wyclif
b. John Hus ( ), Czech
Ideas influenced by Wyclif
Led a nationalist movement in Bohemia (modern-day Czech Republic)
Burned at the stake for his “heretical” views
Hussites: followers of Hus who staged large rebellions in the 14th century

8. Brethren of Common Life: Thomas á Kempis (1380-1471)
Imitation of Christ, 1418
Encouraged Christians to live life simply and make religion a personal experience
d. Erasmus, In Praise of Folly (1509)
Criticized corruption in the Church and the hypocrisy of the clergy
“Erasmus laid the egg that Luther hatched”

9. 4. Impact of Renaissance humanism
a. Christian humanists of the Northern Renaissance criticized the Church and questioned the Latin Vulgate
Textual criticism and new translations of the Bible undermined Catholic authority
† Valla: Donation of Constantine
† Jacques LeFevre d’ Etaples
† Erasmus
† Cardinal Ximenes de Cisneros in Spain

10. b. Italian Renaissance’s worldly influence
b. Italian Renaissance’s worldly influence on church leaders drew criticism
c. Zwingli was trained as a humanist and as a preacher used Erasmus’ edition of the Greek New Testament
d. John Calvin was influenced by humanism, especially Erasmus
e. After Luther’s reformation humanists turned many monasteries into schools
f. The printing press facilitated the spread of humanist ideas

11. 1. Augustinian monk; taught at the University of Wittenburg in Saxony
Martin Luther ( )
A. Background
1. Augustinian monk; taught at the University of Wittenburg in Saxony
2. Johann Tetzel encouraged by Pope Leo X to sell indulgences
a. Indulgences were payments to reduce a person’s punishment in Purgatory, or perhaps the pain of a loved one who had already died
Portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder, Wikipedia Commons

12. b. Tetzel: “As soon as the coin in the coffer rings, a soul from purgatory springs.”
Wikipedia Commons
“A Question to the Mintmaker,” c. 1530, woodcut by Jörg (Jeorg/Jan) Breu the Elder

13. Public Domain. A woodcut critical of Tetzel
Public Domain. A woodcut critical of Tetzel. A buzzard flies overhead as Tetzel rides a dog. Two people innocently pay indulgences.

14. d. Tetzel’s selling of indulgences had become egregious
c. Pope Leo X was looking for additional revenues to pay for the construction of Michelangelo’s dome atop St. Peter’s Basilica
d. Tetzel’s selling of indulgences had become egregious
Raphael: Pope Leo X with Cardinals Giulio de' Medici and Luigi de' Rossi

15. B. Ninety-five Theses, Oct. 31, 1517, Wittenburg Church 1
B. Ninety-five Theses, Oct. 31, 1517, Wittenburg Church 1. Luther criticized the selling of indulgences and questioned the scriptural authority of the pope to grant indulgences 2. Printing press spread Luther’s work with astonishing speed ?

16. Luther challenges Church authority
1. Initially, the pope saw the debate over indulgences as relatively insignificant
, Luther defied pope’s order to stop his crusade
a. Protected by Frederick the Wise of Saxony
b. At this point, Luther was only interested in reforming the Church
Wikipedia Commons Portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder, c. 1532

17. 3. Debate with Johann Eck at Leipzig, 1519
a. Luther denied the infallibility of the pope and of a general council
b. Claimed Church erred when it executed John Hus
c. Represented the point of no return for Luther

18. Source: unknown
Eck vs. Luther

19. 4. 1520, Luther published his theology of reform
a. Salvation through faith alone
† Rejected “good works” as the means to salvation
b. Bible was the ultimate authority.
c. Baptism and Communion were the only valid sacraments.
† Rejected five of the Seven Sacraments
† Rejected transubstantiation
† Advocated consubstantiation
-- “Real Presence”

20. This is the title page of a book written by Luther, Babylonian Captivity of the Church, in which Luther only recognizes two of the seven Catholic sacraments

21. d. The church consisted of a. “priesthood of all believers”; not a
d. The church consisted of a “priesthood of all believers”; not a hierarchical structure
e. Criticized sale of indulgences and simony
f. Encouraged Germany princes to reform the Church in their states
g. Rejected monastic tenets of poverty, chastity and obedience

22. 4. Luther excommunicated by Pope Leo X in 1520
-- Luther threw the papal bull that excommunicated him into the fire
Papal Bull: Wikipedia Commons

23. Originally drawn by Lucas Cranach the Elder
Information below taken from:
Two woodcuts included in Luther’s pamphlet, Passional Christi und Antichristi
Originally drawn by Lucas Cranach the Elder

24. "Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”
6. Diet of Worms (1521)
a. Tribunal of the HRE with power to outlaw and sentence execution
b. Charles V demanded Luther recant his writings
c. Luther refused
Courtesy of Luther House Museum, Wittenberg, Germany
"Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”

25. "Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”
d. Edict of Worms: Luther outlawed as a heretic by the HRE
e. Luther was kidnapped and taken to Frederick the Wise’s castle where he was protected.
Courtesy of Luther House Museum, Wittenberg, Germany
"Here I stand. I cannot do otherwise.”

26. D. Translated Bible into German vernacular in 1523
† Democratized religion
E. Confessions of Augsburg (1530)
1. Written by Philip Melanchthon
2. Attempt at compromise between Lutheran and Catholic princes failed
3. Became official statement of Lutheran Church
a. Salvation through faith alone
b. Bible is the sole authority
c. “Priesthood of all believers”

27. III. Political battle over Lutheranism in Germany
A. Spread of Lutheranism
1. Many northern German states switched to Lutheranism
a. German princes were politically motivated
b. Southern Germany remained Catholic
2. Denmark and Sweden became Lutheran states
3. Lutheranism did not spread much beyond these regions

28. B. Charles V sought to stop the spread of Protestantism and preserve the hegemony of Catholicism 1. In this sense, Charles was similar to a medieval emperor 2. The Turkish threat in Hungary and his wars with France diverted his attention
Emperor’s Banner

29. Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants pamphlet, 1525
C. German Peasants Revolt ( )
1. Twelve Articles, 1525: peasants end of serfdom and tithes, and other feudal practices that oppressed the peasantry
-- Many peasants were inspired by Luther
Twelve Articles of the Swabian Peasants pamphlet, 1525

30. 2. Luther’s views on the peasant movement were conservative
a. He believed people should obey their secular rulers
b. Although he sympathized with some peasant aims, he abhorred their violence
3. As many as 100,000 died in the revolts
-- Both Lutheran and Catholic forces took part in squashing the revolt

31. Map of Peasant Revolts
Wikipedia Commons

32. Northern Germany
1. League of Schmalkalden, 1531
a. Formed by newly Protestant (Lutheran) princes to defend themselves from Charles V’s drive to re-Catholicize Germany
b. Francis I of France allied with the League (despite being Catholic)

33. Hapsburg-Valois Wars: five wars between 1521 and 1555 between France and the HRE in Italy
France sought to keep Germany divided.
Resulted in the long-term political fragmentation of Germany
Catholic unity in Germany never again occurred

34. 3. Charles V finally defeated the League. in 1547 but Lutheranism had
3. Charles V finally defeated the League in 1547 but Lutheranism had already taken hold permanently

35. 1. Temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism
Peace of Augsburg, 1555
1. Temporarily ended the struggle in Germany over Lutheranism
2. Provisions
a. Princes in Germany could choose either Lutheranism or Catholicism
b. Protestants living in Catholic states were allowed to move to Protestant states; the same was true of Catholics in Protestant states
3. Result: permanent religious division of Germany
Wikipedia Commons

36. A. Anabaptists (formed in Zurich, 1525)
IV. The Spread of Protestantism
A. Anabaptists (formed in Zurich, 1525)
1. Characteristics
a. Voluntary association of believers with no connection or allegiance to any states
b. Did not believe in childhood baptism.
c. Millenarians who believed the end of the world was near
d. Rejected the idea of the Trinity.
e. Some historians see them as the “Left Wing” of the Reformation.

37. 2. 1532, a radical group of revolutionary
, a radical group of revolutionary Anabaptists took control of Münster
a. Led by John of Leyden
b. Polygamy was instituted
c. Women also served as leaders
d. All books burned except the Bible
e. Some Lutherans and Catholics were killed.
f. Tragedy at Münster, 1535*: combined armies of Catholic and Protestant forces captured the city and executed the Anabaptist leaders

38. The bodies of executed Anabaptist leaders were publicly displayed in iron cages hanging from St. Lambert’s church for many years.

39. 3. Long-term impact of Anabaptists
a. Mennonites: founded by Dutch leader Menno Simons ( )
-- Emphasized pacifism
b. Quakers in England shared similar beliefs.
c. Unitarians (who rejected the Trinity) were also descendants of the Anabaptists.
4. Luther did not believe in the legitimacy of any other faith except mainstream Protestantism.

40. B. Ulrich Zwingli ( )
Student of humanism
Adopted Lutheranism in Zurich, Switzerland; established a theocracy
3. In contrast to Luther, he saw the Eucharist as only symbolic.
4. Colloquy of Marburg (1529): Zwingli officially split with Luther over the Eucharist.
5. Luther’s Augsburg Confession excluded non-Lutheran reformers such as Zwingli.

41. C. Calvinism (most significant of the new Protestant sects)
1. John Calvin ( )
a. Frenchman; studied to be a priest and later trained as a lawyer
b. Influenced by humanism, especially Erasmus
c. Exiled to Switzerland due to his reform ideas

42. 2. Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536)
a. Calvin’s foundational work
b. Pre-destination: Since God is all- knowing, He already knows who is going to Heaven or Hell.
Thus, “good works” not sufficient for salvation and there is no free will since God has already made His decision
Yet, good works are a sign that one has been chosen for salvation.
God reveals if one has been chosen for salvation through a conversion experience.

43. St. Pierre Cathedral, where Calvin preached in Geneva.
The “elect” are church members who have had their conversion experience and should become model Christians: “visible saints”
Wikipedia Commons
St. Pierre Cathedral, where Calvin preached in Geneva.

44. 3. Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva by 1540
a. Geneva became the new center of the Reformation in Europe.
b. Like Zwingli in Zurich, Calvin believed church and city should combine to enforce Christian behavior.
Only those committed to following Calvinism were allowed to live in the city.

45. 4. Calvinists were the most militant and uncompromising of all Protestants.
a. The Consistory: a judiciary made up of lay elders had the power to impose harsh penalties for those who disobeyed God’s law

46. b. Michael Servetus, a Unitarian humanist from Spain, was burned at the stake in 1553 for his denial of the Trinity.

47. 5. Protestant work ethic: Calvinists later
5. Protestant work ethic: Calvinists later stressed the importance of hard work and accompanying financial success as a sign that God was pleased
6. Spread of Calvinism: greater impact on future generations than Lutheranism
a. Scotland: Presbyterianism established in by John Knox ( )

48. b. France: Huguenots suppressed by Catholic authorities
c. Netherlands: Dutch Reformed Church challenged Catholicism
d. England: Puritans were eventually persecuted by the Anglican Church
e. Countries to where Calvinism did not spread:
-- Ireland
-- Spain
-- Italy
-- All three were heavily Catholic

49. The Protestant and Catholic Reformations

50. V. The English Reformation Early English reformers
1. John Wyclif’s followers—the Lollards—still existed in England in the 16th century.
Wikipedia Commons John M. Kennedy

51. 2. William Tyndale, a humanist,
2. William Tyndale, a humanist, translated the Bible into English (1526).
a. Tyndale hunted down and executed in 1536 after thousands of English Bibles made their way to England
b. Tyndale refused to recognize Henry VIII’s leadership of the Anglican Church
Wikipedia Commons: The Horizon Book of the Elizabethan World (which credits the Folger Shakespeare Library), American Heritage / Houghton Mifflin, 1967, p Portrait: Cambridge University Library

52. Portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1537
B. Henry VIII (r )
Had earlier been a conservative Catholic who criticized Luther
a. Defense of the Seven Sacraments attacked Luther’s views
b. Pope gave him the title: “Defender of the Faith”
Wikipedia Commons Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum
Portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger, c. 1537

53. a. Only one daughter, Mary, had survived after five child births.
Henry sought to annul his marriage to Catharine of Aragon because she could not bear a son.
a. Only one daughter, Mary, had survived after five child births.
b. Having a son was necessary to preserve the Tudor dynasty.
c. Henry believed God was punishing him for marrying his brother’s widow.
Catherine of Aragon

54. d. Henry was also enamored with his mistress, Anne Boleyn

55. Church of England (Anglican Church)
1. Pope did not grant Henry his annulment.
2. Archbishop of Canterbury Cardinal Wolsey failed to get papal approval.
3. Thomas Cranmer replaced Wolsey and convinced Henry to break away from the Catholic Church so he could marry Anne Boleyn.
Thomas Cranmer by Gerlach Flicke Wikipedia Commons National Portrait Gallery, London

56. 4. Henry broke away from the Catholic Church and formed the Church of England
a. Act of Supremacy, 1534: Henry VIII became head of the Church of England
b. Catholic lands were confiscated.
c. Monasteries were closed down.
d. Act of Succession (1534): all of the king’s subjects had to take an oath of loyalty to the king as head of the Anglican church
-- Henry ordered the execution of Thomas More for refusing the oath.

57. 6. In total, Henry had six wives during his reign.
5. Pilgrimage of Grace, 1536: popular opposition in the north to Henry’s reformation led to the largest multi- class rebellion in English history
6. In total, Henry had six wives during his reign.
a. Anne Boleyn executed in 1536
b. His third wife, Jane Seymore, had a son, Edward VI, who succeeded Henry in 1547
Wikipedia Commons Portrait by Hans Holbein Location: Castle Howard (Yorkshire)
Henry VIII in 1542

58. Statute of the Six Articles, 1539
† Anglican Church maintained most of the Catholic doctrines

59. 1. Age 10 when he became king; strong Protestants ruled on his behalf
D. Edward VI (r )
1. Age 10 when he became king; strong Protestants ruled on his behalf
2. Edward adopted Calvinism
a. New practices
Clergy could marry
Iconic images removed from churches
Communion by the laity was expanded
Wikipedia Commons Unknown artist, 1546

60. b. New doctrines (similar to Luther)
Salvation by faith alone
Denial of transubstantiation
Only two sacraments: baptism and communion
3. Edward’s premature death in led to a religious struggle between Protestants and Catholics.

61. E. Mary Tudor (r.1553-1558) tried unsuccessfully to reimpose Catholicism
Daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon
Had earlier married Philip II of Spain
Rescinded Henry’s and Edward’s religious legislation

62. 4. Marian exiles: Protestants fled England fearing Mary’s persecution people were executed including bishops and Cardinal Cranmer -- Opponents called her “Bloody Mary”
Wikipedia Commons Portrait by Antonis Mor, 1554

64. F. Elizabeth I (r. 1558-1603) “Virgin Queen”
1. Daughter of Henry & Anne Boleyn
a. Catholics saw her as “illegitimate”
b. She held strongly Protestant views
2. Effectively oversaw the development of Protestantism in England
a. Politique: practical politician who navigated a middle ground between Protestantism and Anglicanism
b. Puritans sought to reform the church
Wikipedia Commons “Darnley Portrait” National Portrait Gallery, London
Elizabeth I c. 1575

65. 3. “Elizabethan Settlement”: Elizabeth
3. “Elizabethan Settlement”: Elizabeth and Parliament required conformity to the Church of England but people were allowed to worship Protestantism and Catholicism privately
a. Anglican church resembled Lutheranism
b. Some church practices resembled Catholic practices and rituals
-- Book of Common Prayer instituted in
c. Catholicism remained, especially among the gentry, but could not be practiced openly.

66. d. Services given in English e. Monasteries were not reestablished
f. Clergy was allowed to marry
g. Everyone was required to attend Anglican church services (fined if absent)
Wikipedia Commons Portrait by George Gower, c Located at Woburn Abbey

67. 4. Thirty-Nine Articles (1563): Defined
4. Thirty-Nine Articles (1563): Defined the creed of the Anglican Church
-- Followed Protestant doctrine but vague enough to accommodate most of the English, except Puritans
5. Catholics unsuccessfully plotted assassination attempts and invasions against Elizabeth
a. Sought to place Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots on the throne
b. To relieve the threat, Elizabeth agreed to execute Mary

68. The Execution of Mary Stuart
Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots, woodcut from Adam Blackwood’s Martyre de la royne d’Escosse, douairiere de France, 1589.
The Execution of Mary Stuart

69. VI. Impact of the Reformation on Women
Protestant women
1. Luther believed that a woman’s occupation was in the home
2. Calvin believed in the subjugation of women to preserve moral order
3. Protestant churches had greater official control over marriage than did the Catholic church
a. Suppressed common law marriages (which were common in Catholic countries)
b. Catholic governments followed the Protestant example

70. a. Luther and his wife, Katherina von Bora, shared this view
4. Marriage became more companionate, emphasizing the love relationship between man and wife.
a. Luther and his wife, Katherina von Bora, shared this view
b. Luther believed sex was an act to be enjoyed by a husband and wife; not just an act of procreation
Wikipedia Commons Portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder

71. a. Mothers were expected to teach their children to read.
5. Increased emphasis on teaching people to read the Bible resulted in increased literacy for women.
a. Mothers were expected to teach their children to read.
b. Schools for girls were developed.
c. Philip Melanchthon: important in establishing schools for girls in the Protestant German states
Wikipedia Commons, Portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder

72. 6. Protestant women lost opportunities
6. Protestant women lost opportunities in church service that many Catholic women pursued (e.g. becoming nuns).
7. Women gradually lost rights to manage their own property or to make legal transactions in their own name.
Wikipedia Commons, Portrait by Lucas Cranach the Elder

73. B. Catholic women
Women continued to enjoy opportunities in the church through religious orders.
2. Angela Merici ( )
a. Founded the Ursuline Order of Nuns in the 1530s to provide education and religious training
b. Sought to combat heresy through Christian education
c. Spread to France and the New World

74. Portrait of Teresa de Ávila, Peter Paul Rubens, 1615
a. Major Spanish leader of the reform movement for monasteries and convents
b. Preached an individual could have a relationship with God through prayer and contemplation.
Wikipedia Commons Kunsthistorisches Museum
Portrait of Teresa de Ávila, Peter Paul Rubens, 1615

75. Memory Device for the Catholic Reformation: SAINT PAUL
S ociety of Jesus
A buses reformed in Church practices
I ndex of Prohibited Books
N o significant change in Church doctrine
T rent, Council of
P ope Paul III
A nti-Protestant
U rsuline Order of Nuns
L atin Vulgate

76. VII. Catholic Reformation (Counter Reformation)
Background: Response to Protestantism, or parallel reform movement?
Catholic Reformation & Counter Reformation not mutually exclusive.
2. Successful in stemming tide of Protestantism.

77. A. Pope Paul III (r. 1534-1549): Most. important pope in reforming the
A. Pope Paul III (r ): Most important pope in reforming the Church and challenging Protestantism
1. Rather than instituting new doctrines, he sought to improve church discipline through existing doctrine.
2. Response to gains of Protestantism and response to critics within the church who demanded reforms
Portrait by Titian,

78. B. Council of Trent (three sessions during ): established Catholic dogma for the next four centuries 1. Equal validity of Scriptures, Church traditions, and writings of Church fathers 2. Salvation through “good works” and faith 3. All seven sacraments were valid; transubstantiation was reaffirmed 4. Monasticism, celibacy of the clergy, and purgatory reaffirmed

79. 5. Index of Forbidden Books
a. Books that supported Protestantism or overly criticized the Church (e.g. Erasmus) were banned from Catholic countries
b. Anyone possessing books listed in the Index could be punished severely
6. Church reforms: curtailed abuses in sale of indulgences, simony curtailed, bishops were given greater control over the clergy, seminaries established to train priests

80. 1. Jesuits (Society of Jesus) – founded in 1540
C. New Religious Orders.
1. Jesuits (Society of Jesus) – founded in 1540
a. Ignatius Loyola ( )
† Organized Jesuits in military fashion
† Spiritual Exercises: Loyola’s guidebook to train Jesuits
Wikipedia Commons unknown artist, 16th century

81. Ignatius Loyola, Portrait by Peter Paul Rubens
b. Three main Jesuit goals:
† Reform the church through education
† Missionary work to pagan peoples
† Fight Protestantism
Wikipedia Commons
Ignatius Loyola, Portrait by Peter Paul Rubens

82. c. 1542, Jesuits controlled the. Spanish & Italian Inquisitions at
c. 1542, Jesuits controlled the Spanish & Italian Inquisitions at the behest of Paul III: Sacred Congregation of the Holy Office
† Spain: persecuted Moriscos and Jews suspected of backsliding to their original faiths
† Italy: Pope Paul IV issued a papal bull accusing Jews of killing Christ and placing them in ghettos in the Papal States
† Persecution of Jews throughout Europe resulted

83. D. Baroque Art (as part of the Catholic Reformation)
1. Began in Catholic Reformation countries to teach in a concrete and emotional way and demonstrate the glory and power of the Catholic Church
Encouraged by the papacy and the Jesuits
Prominent in France, Flanders, Austria, southern Germany, and Poland
2. Spread later to Protestant countries: Netherlands, northern Germany, and England

84. 4. Architecture and sculpture
3. Sought to overwhelm the viewer: emphasized grandeur, emotion, movement, spaciousness, and unity surrounding a certain theme
4. Architecture and sculpture
a. Baroque architecture reflected the image and power of absolute monarchs and the Catholic Church
Wikipedia Commons unknown artist, 16th century

85. b. Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1650). personified baroque architecture
b. Gianlorenzo Bernini ( ) personified baroque architecture and sculpture
Colonnade for piazza in front of St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome was his greatest architectural achievement ( )
Wikipedia Commons  "Photo by DAVID ILIFF. License: CC-BY-SA 3.0"

86. Bernini’s fountain in St. Peter’s Square, 1675
Wikipedia Commons Photo by Radomil

87. He sculpted the incredible St
He sculpted the incredible St. Peter’s Baldachin, the canopy over the high altar of St. Peter’s Basilica ( )
Wikipedia Commons  "Photo by DAVID ILIFF. License: CC-BY-SA 3.0"

88. His altarpiece sculpture, The Ecstasy of St
His altarpiece sculpture, The Ecstasy of St. Teresa, evokes tremendous emotion ( )
Wikipedia Commons Photo by Napoleon Vier Located at Santa Maria della Vittoria, Rome

89. 5. Baroque painting
a. Characteristics
Stressed broad areas of light and shadow rather than on linear arrangements of the High Renaissance
Color was an important element as it appealed to the senses and more true to nature.
Not concerned with clarity of detail as with overall dynamic effect
Designed to give a spontaneous personal experience

90. b. Caravaggio (1571-1610), Italian
Perhaps the first important painter of the Baroque era
Depicted highly emotional scenes
Used sharp contrasts of light and dark to create drama (tenebrism)
Criticized by some for using ordinary people as models for his depictions of Biblical scenes

91. Carav aggio, The Calling of St. Matthew, 1599-1600
Wikipedia Commons Location:  Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome

92. c. Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), Flemish painter
Worked for the Hapsburg court in Brussels (the capital of the Spanish Netherlands)
Emphasized color and sensuality; animated figures and melodramatic contrasts; monumental size.
Nearly half of his works dealt with Christian subjects.
Known for his sensual nudes as Roman goddesses, water nymphs, and saints and angels.

93. The Elevation of the Cross, 1610-1611
Peter Paul Rubens,
The Elevation of the Cross,
Wikipedia Commons Location:  Contarelli Chapel, San Luigi dei Francesi, Rome