1. Unit 3 Notes Ch

2. Ch. 8 Learning
Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.
Classical Conditioning: Pavlov
Operant Conditioning: Skinner
Modeling: Bandura

3. Associative Learning
Classical Conditioning and operant conditioning are also known as associative learning (when two stimuli or a stimuli & response are paired together)
Both Classical Conditioning & Operant Conditioning are under the umbrella of Behaviorism

4. Classical Conditioning - Pavlov
UCS (US) – Unconditioned Stimulus
UCR (UR) – Unconditioned Response
NS – Neutral Stimulus
CS – Conditioned Stimulus
CR – Conditioned Response
UCS creates a UCR
NS has no response
CS creates a CR

5. CC - Continued Acquisition – When the NS & UCS are paired
Extinction – The CS no longer creates the CR. AKA The diminished responding of the CS no longer signaling the impending the UCS.
Spontaneous Recovery – The CS once again creates the CR. AKA the reappearance of a weakened CR after a pause
Generalization – When a similar stimulus to the CS creates the CR
Discrimination – When only the CS creates the CR Pg

6. CC - Continued
Higher Order Conditioning: When a 2nd CS is conditioned to the first CS to create a new CR.
Counterconditioning: When a positive stimulus is used to eliminate a negative conditioned response.
Aversive Counterconditioning: When a negative stimulus is used to eliminate a negative conditioned response

7. Operant Conditioning - Skinner
Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Rewarded behavior is likely to recur
Operant Chamber (Skinner Box): Animal presses a bar or key for food
Operant Conditioning is based on reinforcement and punishent

8. Reinforcement & Punishment
Reinforcement increases a behavior
Punishment decreases a behavior
Positive refers to giving
Negative refers to taking

9. Reinforcement & Punishment Cont’d
Positive Reinforcement: Increase by giving
Negative Reinforcement: Increase by taking
Positive Punishment: Decrease by giving
Negative Punishment: Decrease by taking
Give Take
Increase PR NR
Decrease PP NP

10. Shaping; Primary & Secondary Reinforcers
Shaping: Guiding behavior towards successive approximations (step by step towards the desired behavior)
Primary Reinforcer: Innate reinforcer that satisfies a biological need
Secondary Reinforcer: (Conditioned): Learned and associated with pleasure: Tokens, coupons, or cc connections

11. Reinforcement Schedules
Continuous (Fixed): Patterned
Intermittent (Variable): Random
Ratio: Based on person
Interval: Based on Time

12. Schedules Cont’d
Fixed Ratio: Reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses
Variable Ratio: Occurs after an unpredictable number of responses
Fixed Interval: Occurs after a fixed time period
Variable Interval: Occurs randomly during time periods

13. Cognition & Operant Conditioning
Latent Learning: Learning only becomes apparent when there is incentive to demonstrate it (pg. 334)
Cognitive Map: A mental representation of a “map”

14. Intrinsic v Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic: Desire to perform behavior for one’s own sake
Extrinsic: Desire to perform behavior for external reward

15. Observational Learning
Modeling (Bandura) Bobo Doll Experiment: Children more likely to be aggressive after having watched children already be aggressive Mirror Neurons: (Frontal Cortex): Provide neurological basis for observational learning

16. Prosocial Behavior
Prosocial behavior: Positive, helpful models who exemplify altruism can prompt this in others

17. Unscramble
OBYS SABT
TYAR CAPEE
CALPE YZRET

18. Learned Helplessness
Seligman (LH): Experimented with dogs who were classically conditioned with a bell and shock. Then shocked them on one side of a fence.

19. Ch. 9 - Memory Memory: Ability to store and retrieve information
Flashbulb Memory: A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
3 Stages: Encoding, Storage, Retrieval

20. 3 Stages – Information Processing
Encoding: Taking memory in
Storage: Holding memory over time
Retrieval: Getting information out of memory

21. 3 Stages of Memory Sensory: Instantaneous or Subconscious
Short-Term: Holds memory for a brief period of time (5-9 items, up to a few minutes)
Working Memory: A newer understanding of short-term memory
Long-Term: Relatively permanent and limitless storage of information

22. Encoding Automatic Processing: Absorbing information with no effort
Effortful Processing: Absorbing information that includes attention and effort
Rehearsal: Conscious Repetition
Spacing Effect: Distributing study over time
Serial Position Effect: Remembering first and last items of a list better than the middle

23. Encoding Meanings Visual: Encoding Picture Images
Acoustic: Encoding of sound, particularly words
Semantic: Encoding the meaning of words (hit)

24. Visual Encoding Imagery: Using mental pictures to remember
Mnemonics: Memory aids using acronyms
Chunking: Organizing into groups or familiar units

25. Sensory & Long Term Memory
Iconic: Subconscious visual memory
Echoic: Subconscious auditory memory
Long Term Potentiation (LTP): Neural basis for long term memory

26. Implicit & Explicit Memory
Implicit (Non-declarative) (Cerebellum): How to do something
Explicit (declarative) (Hippocampus): Facts, Memories, Events
Priming: Activation of associations
déjà vu: French for already seen. The sense that one has experienced this before
Mood Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall information consistent with one’s mood

27. Storage Decay Decay: The forgetting of information
Ebbinghaus’ Retention Curve: New information fades and then levels; the more one studies initially, the less the information fades
Proactive interference: Disruptive effect of old information on new information (Old blocks new)
Retroactive Interference: Disruptive effect of new information on old information (Old blocks new)
Repression: Subconsciously pushing down painful information

28. Memory Construction
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating misleading information into memory
Source Amnesia (Pg. 384): Attributing a memory to the wrong place or time, including an imagined memory

29. Ch. 10 – Thinking & Language
Cognition: All activities associated with thinking
Concept: Mental grouping of similar items
Prototype: Best example of a category
Algorithm: Methodical, logical method of solving a problem and guaranteeing a solution
Heuristic: A simple, rule of thumb strategy
-Representative: A prototype, stereotype thought to solve a problem
-Availability: Using information in memory to make a decision

30. Obstacles to Problem Solving
Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search for information that confirms our preconceptions
Insight: A sudden realization
Fixation: An inability to see a problem from a new perspective
Mental Set: A tendency to approach a problem in a way that has been successful in the past
Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think of things only in their usual functions (uses)

31. Other Cognitive Terms
Overconfidence: The tendency to be more confident than correct
Framing: The way an issue is posed
Belief Bias: The tendency for preexisting beliefs to distort logic
Belief Perseverance: Clinging to one’s beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

32. Language Phonemes: Smallest unit of sound with no meaning
Morpheme: Smallest unit of sound with meaning
Grammar: System of rules that enable us to communicate
Semantics: Set of rules by which we derive meaning
Syntax: Rules for combining words and making sense

33. Language Development Stages
Babbling: 4 months-Spontaneous utterances unrelated to language
One-Word: Age one – Child speaks in single words
Two-Word: Age Two – Child speaks in two words aka
Telegraphic: Child speaks mainly using nouns and verbs only to express self. (resembles a telegram)

34. Theories
Skinner: Operant Learning – Language is learned primarily through operant principles such as reinforcement & punishment, modeling & imitation.
Chomsky: Language Acquisition Device – Language naturally occurs and is to some degree inborn
Linguistic Determinism: Language shapes ideas, and language may influence culture and behavior

35. Animal Language
Pg. 423 – 428
Do animals communicate with each other?