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Liberalism, Nationalism, and Revolutions prior to 1848

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1 Liberalism, Nationalism, and Revolutions prior to 1848

2 Liberalism Principle ideas of liberty and equality
Demanded representative government as opposed to autocratic monarchy Equality before the law as opposed to legally separate classes Specific individual freedoms- freedom of press, speech, assembly, worship, from arbitrary arrest Laissez-faire economics – unrestricted private enterprise with no government interference Business elites enthusiastically embraced laissez-faire mentality- used liberal ideals to defend their right to do as they pleased in factories etc… Labor unions outlawed because restricted free competition and the individual’s right to work Really only seen in France and England in 1815 and even in those countries, liberalism had only began to succeed Adam Smith – Wealth of Nations, free market capitalism Distinction between “classical” liberalism and more modern American liberalism  which usually favors more government programs to meet social needs and to regulate the economy

3 Liberalism Cont… Early 19th c. liberals wanted a representative government but with property requirements for voting rights Many intellectuals felt that liberalism did not go far enough – became increasingly identified with upper- class interests Some called for universal suffrage--- for all males Some called for a republican form of government without the power and wealth of the monarchy and upper class

4 Classical Liberalism Adam Smith Thomas Malthus David Ricardo
Adam Smith- Wealth of Nations, Laissez Faire politics/economy – no government regulation Malthus- An Essay on the Principle of Population- population will exceed the resources, will lead to misery for most of humanity Slowing of population growth might result from war, famine, and disease Malthus believed that “moral restraint” – postponing marriage and practicing chastity until marriage will help with population growth Ricardo- Iron Law of Wages Wages would hover around the subsistence level- labor should be regarded like any other commodity whose price fluctuated in accordance with supply and demand If the supply of labor was less than the demand for it wages would increase. When wages rose above the subsistence level, workers would be encouraged to have more children, thereby enlarging the labor supply In turn if the supply of labor exceeded the demand, wages would decrease, causing workers to have fewer children, thus reducing the labor supply It was useless to raise wages in an effort to improve worker’s lives since higher wages would serve only to encourage them to have more children, thereby increasing the labor supply and forcing wages down once again

5 Moving away from Laissez-Faire
Jeremy Bentham In some instances the government should not be merely a passive policeman but should intervene for the disadvantaged Every human practice and institution should be evaluated in terms of its utility- greatest good for the greatest number of people Utilitarianism John Stuart Mills Represented further evolution of liberal doctrine Advocated women’s rights Society should exercise some control over the distribution of wealth Labor unions State- supported education Child labor laws

6 The Growing Appeal of Nationalism
Nationalism gained popularity after 1815 Cultural unity through language, history, culture, land etc… Origins in the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars In Eastern Europe push to turn cultural identity into a political reality Between 1815 and 1850 many liberals were also nationalists, saw people as a source of power Early nationalists believed every nation had a right to exist Increased idea of “us vs them” – stressed differences could ultimately lead to aggression in an age of increased global interaction The power of nationalism was revealed in the success of the French armies in the revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars, when soldiers inspired by patriotic loyalty to the French nation achieved victory after victory  early nationalists found inspiration in the vision of a people united by a common language, common culture and history, and a common territory. In German speaking central Europe, defeat by Napoleon’s army had made the vision of a national people united in defense of their fatherland particularly attractive. Term will come to describe aspirations for national independence or unification. It threatened to break up multi-national empires such as Austria and pull together fragmented states such as Germany and Italy. Nationalists believed that true nations usually shared: -Common history -historic geographic area Common language Common religion Shared culture Common enemies In recent years, scholars have tried to understand how the nationalist vision was so successful in the long run. Of fundamental importance in the rise of nationalism was the development of a complex industrial and urban society, which required between communication between individuals and groups. This need for improved communication promoted the use of standardized languages through mass education and the emergence of the popular press. When a minority population was large and concentrated, the nationalist campaign for a standardized language often led the minority group to push for a separate nation-state. Nation-states emerged in the 19th century as “imagined communities” that sought to bind millions of strangers together around the abstract concept of an all embracing national identity. This mean bringing together citizens with emotionally charged symbols and ceremonies, such as independence holidays and patriotic parades. Between 1815 and 1850 close tie between liberalism and nationalism. Ideas of liberty of the people and the love of a free nation overlapped greatly in the early 19th c

7 Reforms and Revolutions before 1848
Liberal: Spain (1822) Russia (1825) France (1830) Great Britain Nationalist Greek Independence (1820s) Poland (1830) Belgium (1830) Mixed South America (1820s) Spain- unsuccessful liberal revolt against Ferdinand VII- put down by the French Decembrist Revolt in Russia – uprising led by officers exposed to liberal ideas while visiting the West Occasioned by confusion over the succession after the death of Alexander I. Ruthlessly suppressed by Nicholas I. France- successful liberal revolt against Charles X (Bourbon), established a liberal constitutional monarchy under Louis Phillippe (Orleans)- “July Monarchy” Reform Act of Great Britain- liberal (Whig) party led by aristocrats imposes liberal reform of the electoral system- doubling the number of voters and giving representation in Parliament to industrial cities, eliminate “rotten” boroughs, reducing the use of capital punishment Nationalist Greek Independence- Nationalist uprising against the Ottoman rule. Successful due to intervention by Russian and British forces Poland- nationalist uprising against Russian control- suppressed by Nicholas I Belgium- successful nationalist revolt against rule by the Dutch Mixed- South America- Nationalist and liberal uprising against Spanish rule- successful due to weakness of the mother country after Napoleonic wars. Brazil broke free from Portugal (1822) but retained Portuguese emperor.

8 19c Latin American Independence Movements

9 National Liberation in Greece
In the early 19th c the general growth of national aspirations inspired a desire for independence Open revolt in 1821 led by Alexander Ypsilanti- Greek patriot and general in the Russian Army At first the Great Powers – Metternich- refused to help because they saw revolution as a dangerous thing Wanted a stable Ottoman Empire against to help buffer against Russian interests in southeast Europe Since the 15th century the Greeks had been under Ottoman control Survived as a people through language and Greek Orthodox religion Led to formation of secret societies

10 National Liberation in Greece
The Greek cause had powerful defenders Writers and artists, moved by the Romanticism, responded enthusiastically to the Greek national struggle Famous English romantic poet- Lord Byron– went to go fight with the Greeks Died of a fever while there In 1827, Great Britain, France, and Russia responded to popular pressure and directed Ottomans to accept an armistice’ When they refused, the three powers destroyed Ottoman navy at Navarino In 1832, Greece gained its independence Russians supported the Greek Orthodox religion and hated the Ottomans English and Americans cherished the classical culture of Greece and turned it into a preservation effort Russia declared war on the Ottomans led to the establishment of Russian protectorate over much of present day Romania, which had also been under Ottoman rule.

11 Russia- the Decembrist Revolt
Czar Alexander I died suddenly with no direct heir Dynastic crisis Constantine, oldest son, married a woman not of royal blood Nicholas- named the heir – less popular than Constantine December 26, 1825 a regiment marched into St. Petersburg and refused to take oath of allegiance to Nicholas  they wanted Constantine Nicholas ordered troops to put down opposition, the Decembrists leaders were executed and over 100 insurgents sent to Siberia Impact: Nicholas tightened his grip and outlawed western ideas In Alexander I became the tsar- was liberal and idealistic Started to reform the country Gave nobles the right to free serfs- few actually did Russian upper class had come into contact with western liberal ideas during the Napoleonic Wars Russian troops forced to take an oath of allegiance to Nicholas, who was less popular, he was more reactionary Important because: The first rebellion in modern Russian history where the rebels had specific political goals In their martyrdom, the Decembrists came to symbolize the dreams/ideals of all Russian liberals Nicholas was determined that his power would never again come into question

12 The Decembrist Uprising - 1825
Orthodoxy! Autocracy! Nationalism! Nicholas I

13 The Decembrist Uprising - 1825

14 Liberal Reform in Great Britain
18th century Britain had been stable and flexible BUT only about 8% of the population able to vote, the British Parliament remained in the hands of the upper classes Government policies supported the aristocracy and the new industrial capitalists at the expense of the laboring classes By the 1780s, a growing interest in some kind of political reform In 1815, the government passed the Corn Laws Prohibited importation of grain unless, increased prices and profits for upper classes, hurt working people Triggered protests and demonstrations by middle and working class– Anti-Corn League Pressure from below also reshaped Great Britain, but through a process of gradual reform rather than a revolution. Landowning aristocracy dominated society, but that class was neither closed nor rigidly defined. Successful business and professional people could buy land and become gentlefolk, while the common people enjoyed limited civil rights, but the constitutional monarchy was hardly democratic Organized union activity began to emerge in force during the Napoleonic wars, yet the radical aspects of the French Revolution threw the British aristocracy into a panic for a generation, making it extremely hostile to any attempts at changing the status quo Corn Laws- benefited the upper classes, hurt lower classes due to bread prices

15 Liberal Reform in Great Britain
In 1817, the Tory government responded by temporarily suspending the traditional rights of peaceable assembly and habeas corpus Passed the Six Acts- placed controls on a heavily taxed press and practically eliminated all mass meetings Battle of Peterloo (Saint Peter’s Fields in Manchester) demonstrated the government’s determination to repress dissenters Enormous, but orderly protests, at Saint Peter’s Field in Manchester, savagely broken up by armed cavalry – nicknamed the Battle of Peterloo in referenced to the British victory at Waterloo

16 Liberal Reform in Great Britain
The new manufacturing groups and commercial groups insisted on a place for their new wealth alongside the landed wealth of the aristocracy Called for many kinds of reform The Whig Party, although still aristocratic, had always been more acceptable to the commercial and industrial class In 1830, introduced “an act to amend the representation of the people of England and Wales” The Reform Bill of 1832 passed Parliamentary districts did not reflect the change in population brought on by the industrial revolution

17 Liberal Reform in Great Britain
Reform Bill of 1832 Allowed the House of Commons to emerge as the all-important legislative body Old “Rotten Boroughs” were eliminated and new industrial areas gained a political voice Number of voters increased by 50% to include about 12% of the adult men in Britain and Ireland Middle class groups in the urban population as well as some substantial farmers who leased their land received the vote Major reform achieved without revolution or war The new industrial areas of the country gained representation in the Commons, and many “old rotten boroughs” – electoral districts that had very few voters and that the landed aristocracy had bought and sold—were eliminated What you saw was political competition between the aristocracy and the middle class

18

19 The Chartist Movement The “People’s Charter” of 1838 pressed British elites for even more reform Chartists demanded : UNIVERSAL MALE SUFFRAGE EQUAL-SIZED electoral districts Voting by SECRET BALLOT NO PROPERTY QUALIFICATION PAY for members of Parliament ANNUAL ELECTIONS of Parliament Thousands of people signed petitions calling on Parliament to grant universal suffrage, but they were all rejected The working poor failed in their chartist demands, but learned a valuable lesson in mass politics

20 Liberal Reform in Great Britain
Many working class people joined with the middle class in the Anti-Corn Law League More and more demanded no tariffs on corn/grain When the potato famine hits Ireland, famine prices for food seemed likely in England Corn Laws repealed in 1846 After this, the liberal doctrine of free trade became almost sacred dogma in Great Britain In 1847 passed the 10 Hours Act- limiting workday for women and young people in a factory to 10 hours Tory prime minister Robert Peel joined with the Whigs to repeal the Corn Laws in 1846 and all the import of grain In competition with the middle class for the support of the working class, Tory legislators continued to support legislation regulating factory conditions The competition between a still-powerful aristocracy and a strong middle class was a crucial factor in Great Britain’s peaceful political evolution. The working classes could make temporary alliances with either competitor to better their own conditions

21 Reform > Revolution
Parliament’s willingness to pass modest reforms saved Britain from the revolutionary upheavals that happened on the continent.

22 Ireland and the Great Famine
“The poverty of the Irish peasantry is on the extreme verge of human misery; their cottages would scarce serve for pig styes even in Scotland; and their rags seem the very refuse of a sheep, and are spread over their bodies with such an ingenious variety of wretchedness that you would think nothing but some sort of perverted taste could have assembled so many shreds together.” – Sir Walter Scott Despite the bad conditions population growth sped upward due to potato, however as this trend continued conditions became more precarious In 1846, 1848, and 1851 the potato crop failed Great Famine  already impoverished peasants experienced widespread sickness and starvation The people of Ireland did not benefit from the political competition in Britain. In the mid-1800s Ireland was an agricultural nation, and the great majority of the population were Irish Catholics. They typically rented their land from a tiny minority of Church of England Protestant landowners, who often resided in England. Using a middleman system, these absentee landlords leased land for short periods only, set rents at will, and easily evicted their tenants. In short, landlords used their power to grab as much profit as possible. Trapped in an exploitative system driven by combination of religion and class, Irish peasants lived in abominable conditions. Wretched one room mud cabins dotted the Irish countryside; the typical tenant farmer couldn’t afford shoes or stockings. Hopeless poverty About ½ of the Irish population lived off of the potato and little else. Could survive off a big potato patch Feed a family of 6 for a year

23 Ireland and the great Potato Famine
British government reacted slowly Relief efforts inadequate Government continued to collect taxes, landlords demanded their rent, and tenants who could not pay were evicted and their homes destroyed Shattered Irish population growth 1 million emigrants fled between , mostly to the USA or Canada 1.5 million people died The Great Famine intensified anti-British feeling and promoted Irish nationalism Bitter memory of starvation, exile, and British inaction burned deeply Ireland was alone in European countries in the 19th c to decline in population- became a land of continuous out-migration, early death, late marriage, and celibacy Patriots of the later 19th c and early 20th c could call on the powerful collective emotions in their campaigns for land reform, home rule, and eventually Irish independence.

24 Revolution of 1830 in France
Louis XVIII’s Constitutional Charter of 1814 was basically a liberal constitution (Napoleonic Code) Charter protected economic and social gains made by the sections of the middle class and the peasantry in the French Revolution Permitted intellectual and artistic freedom Created a parliament with upper and lower houses After Napoleon’s 100 Days, the moderate, worldly king, refused to bow to the wishes of die-hard aristocrats who wanted to sweep away all the revolutionary changes Instead, Louis appointed as his ministers moderate royalists, who sought and obtained support of a majority of the representatives elected to the lower Chamber of Deputies He created a more moderate government – try to quiet the ultra-royalists His charter was liberal but not democratic Only about 100,000 of the wealthiest males out of a total population of 30 million had the right to vote for deputies who, with the king and his ministers, made the laws of the nation “notable people” who did vote came from very different backgrounds Wealthy businessmen , war profiteers, successful professionals, ex-revolutionaries, large landowners from the old aristocracy and the middle class, Bourbons, Bonarpartists.

25 King Charles X of France (r. 1824-1830)
His Goals: Lessen the influence of the middle class. Limit the right to vote. Put the clergy back in charge of education. Public money used to pay nobles for the loss of their lands during the Fr Revolution. His Program: Attack the 1814 Charter. Control the press. Dismiss the Chamber of Deputies when it turned against him. Appointed an ultra-reactionary as his first minister. Louis’s conservative successor, Charles X wanted to re-establish old order in France Limited royal power. Granted

26 The Revolution of 1830 in France
Charles refused to accept the Constitutional Charter in an attempted coup in July 1830 Issued decrees stripping much of the wealthy middle class of its voting rights and censored the press Immediate reaction was insurrection in the capital Three days of victorious street fighting brought down the government Charles fled The upper middle class, seated Charles’s cousin, Louis Philippe on the vacant throne Increasingly blocked by the opposition of the deputies, Charles’s government turned in 1830 to military adventure in an effort to rally French nationalism and gain popular support. A long standing economic and diplomatic dispute with Muslim Algeria, a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, provided the opportunity In June 1830, a French force of 37,000 crossed the Mediterranean, landed to the west of Algiers, took the capital city in three weeks Algerians revolted and waged a war that lasted until 1847, when French armies finally subdued the country Marked the rebirth of French colonial expansion Reaction to removal of Constitutional Charter lawyers, liberal journalists, and middle class business men helped start an insurrection in the capital Printers, other artisans, and small traders rioted in the streets of Paris

27 However, beyond this demands for reform were unanswered
Louis Phillipe accepted the Constitutional Charter, the tri-color flag, and declared himself “citizen king” However, beyond this demands for reform were unanswered Status quo maintained – made a revolution but for naught


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