1. Race, ethnicity and racism

2. Basic Concepts
‘Race’ was once thought to be scientific concept, but is today discredited as such – however, racial beliefs still shape many people’s beliefs and behaviour
Racialization is the process by which understandings of race is used to classify individuals or groups.
Ethnicity refers to the cultural beliefs and practices of a particular community of people and is wholly social
Prejudice refers to attitudes of one group towards another and can be positive or negative
Discrimination refers to behaviour towards other social groups and can be positive or negative
Racism is prejudice based on socially significant physical distinctions – new racism is prejudice based on cultural differences

3. What is race?
What is the race concept, and why have sociologists rejected it?

4. Race: A Discredited Concept in Biology
Historically, scientists approached the study of human biological diversity in two ways:
Racial classification, now largely rejected.
Explanatory approach that focuses on understanding specific differences.

5. Race: A Discredited Concept in Biology
Racial classification is the attempt to assign humans to discrete categories (purportedly) based on common ancestory. Biological differences are real, important and apparent. But not a source to categorize people into race groups.

6. Race: A Discredited Concept in Biology
Race refers to a geographically isolated subdivision of a species
Human biological variation distributed gradually between populations is called clines
Human populations have not been isolated enough from one another to develop into discrete groups

7. Race: A Discredited Concept in Biology
Phenotype-based racial classifications raise the problem of deciding which traits should be primary.
Height, weight, body shape, skull form, skin color?

8. Race: A Discredited Concept in Biology
Phenotypic traits (skin color) have been used for racial classification
This overly simplistic classification was compatible with the political use of race during the colonial period.
Race kept white Europeans separate from African, Asian, and Native American subjects.

9. Races Are Not Biologically Distinct
Problems with using a tripartite scheme
“Color based” racial labels are not accurate.
Caucasoid, Negroid, Mongoloid
Many populations don’t fit neatly into any one of the three “great races.”
No single trait can be used as a basis for racial classification.
Phenotypic similarities and differences do not necessarily have a genetic basis.

10. The number of combinations is very large
Skin color, stature, skull form, nose form, eye shape, lip thickness don’t go together as a unit
The amount that heredity (versus environment) contributes to phenotypical traits is unclear.

11. Genetic Markers Don’t Correlate with Phenotype
The analysis of human DNA indicates that 94 % of human genetic variation occurs within “races”.
There is only 6 % variation between conventional geographic “racial” groupings (Africans, Asians and Europeans).
There is much greater variation within each of traditional “races” than between them.

12. Although long-term genetic markers do exist, they don’t correlate neatly with phenotype.
Phenotypical similarities and differences are not precisely or necessarily correlated with genetic relationships.
Because of environment that affect individuals during growth and development, the range of phenotypes characteristic of a population may change without any genetic change.

13. Apartheid in South Africa until 1994
White minority, 13%, ruled over non-white majority
Non-whites had no vote, no representation in the central government
Segregation was enforced at all levels of society (washrooms, railway carriages, neighborhoods, schools…)
Blacks were forced to work in gold and diamond mines

14. Apartheid was encoded in law, enforced through violence and brutality
Law enforcement and security services suppressed al resistance to the regime
International condemnation, economic and cultural sanctions  legalization of ANC, first free elections in 1994, Mandela became president.

15. Out of 38 million, 9 million impoverished, 20 million without electricity.
More than half of the black population was illiterate.
Infant mortality rates among blacks was 10 times higher than whites!
1996 constitution outlawed all discrimination on the basis of race, ethnic or social origin, religion and belief, sexual orientation, disability and pregnancy.
Truth and reconciliation commissions (TRC)

16. Institutional racism
Institutional racism: the collective failure of an organization to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their color, culture or ethnic origin which can be seen and detected in processes; attitudes and behavior which amount to discrimination through prejudice, ignorance and streotyping which disadvantages minority ethnic people.

17. Sociological Theories of Racism
Ethnocentrism is the valorization of one’s own culture over others
Group closure is the process through which social groups erect and maintain boundaries between themselves and other groups
Resource allocation theories explain ethnic conflicts and hatred with reference to the struggle over scarce resources

18. Models of Ethnic Integration
Assimilation – immigrants abandon their original customs and traditions in favour of the host nation’s majority culture
Melting Pot – immigrant cultures are blended with the host nation’s to form new cultural patterns
Cultural Pluralism – all ethnic cultures exist separately but all participate in political and economic life
Multiculturalism – involves policies that encourage ethnic groups to live in harmony with each other
Giddens argues that multiculturalism is more than a simple cultural pluralism