1. SSC 2030: Energy Systems & Sustainability
3. Energy use
Energy: primary vs. delivered vs. useful
Expanding use of energy
Energy use: national comparisons
Trends in US energy use
Energy use in Vermont & at Vermont Tech

2. 3. Energy use 3.2 Converting primary energy to ‘useful’ energy
Humans transfer & transform energy all over the place!

3. Conversion of primary to useful energy
Transformation of energy, from one form to another, and transfer of energy from generator to user, both result in losses.
Overall, this process is inefficient, particularly for electricity.
Figure 3.1
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

4. Energy: primary vs. delivered vs. used
3 key questions about energy use:
1. How much energy is lost between primary and final use?
2. What is the energy in our utility bills?
3. What is the essential 'useful' energy? 
2.5% of energy used for mining & transportation
% energy lost as waste heat at the generating plant
7% lost in transmission
We’re billed for delivered energy - what we pull from the grid
That fraction of delivered energy that is actually used.
Depends on the efficiency of appliance and user.
Often 90% of delivered energy is wasted as heat.
*Coal to CFL lighting is used as an example here.
1 GJ of primary energy  32 MJ light MJ waste heat
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

5. 3. Energy use 3.3 Expanding use of energy
Driven by increasing population, new techologies & services

6. Energy use has increased over time
Why?
New technologies: fire  steam  electricity  etc.
New uses: ‘services’ include our computers & nifty new devices
Rapidly growing human population
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

7. Energy flow maps sources to uses
waste heat
EIA, 2011

8. Let’s look at energy use in five sectors
Food
Domestic energy
Industry
Transportation
Services (everything else)
waste heat
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

9. 1. Food 3000 BC 1500 BC 100 BC 1300 AD 1880 AD waste heat Middle East:
1st agricultural revolution
Domestication of animals & crops
Egypt:
Intensive agriculture around the Nile
Surplus food allows development of a complex society with huge monuments
Han China:
Intensive agriculture
Mass production of cast iron ploughs & canal systems for trading
Europe:
Horses & better ploughs allow a subsistence economy
Wind & water power used for irrigation & grinding of grain
waste heat
Europe:
Industrial revolution
Population shift to urban centers.
Farm mechanization
Fertilizers
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

10. Fertilizer 3000 BC 1300 AD 1840 1914 2009 waste heat
manure
Phosphorous & potassium mined from rock
NaNO3 imported from Chile
(NH3)2SO4 a by-product of coal gasification
Haber-Bosch process produces NH3 chemically
H2 from coal
Fossil-fuel intensive:
9 tonne oil per 1 tonne NH3
waste heat
1.2% of global energy used for fertilizer production
1/3 of protein depends on Haber-Bosch
Downside?
Eutrophication & GHG emissions
today
0.6 tonne oil per 1 tonne NH3
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

11. Fossil fuels for fertilizers
All plants require these inputs: sun, water, nutrients & soil.
phosphorous (P)
potassium (K)
nitrogen (N)
 mined
 energy intensive Haber-Bosch process
Soil bacteria can convert abundant N2 in the atmosphere to NH3 but it’s much harder for human chemists.
Haber-Bosch process invented in Germany on the eve of WWI.
N2(gas) + 3H2(gas)  2NH3(gas)
air
natural gas
huge energy input to increase temperature & pressure
0.7 toe fossil fuel / 1 tonne of NH3
1% of global fuel use!
NH3 fertilizers are involved in production of 1/3 of the world’s protein.
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

12. Farm mechanization (UK)
3000 BC
1300 AD
1901
1940
2009
man to horse
3.5 million horses
1.1 million on farms
30% of land fed horses
Mechanization driven by the need for men at war
Land freed for human food production
Countryside depopulated
waste heat
Per capita use:
1 GJ for farm fuel
1 GJ for fertlizer
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

13. Fossil fuels & mechanization
The loss of farm labor during WWII spurred mechanization of farm work.
This increased use of liquid fossil fuels.
waste heat
-idmr_ ?s=640x640

14. 2. Domestic energy Domestic energy: for cooking, heating, lighting
3000 BC
1300 AD
1900
2009
wood
Fireplaces were complex & provided heat, hot water & cooking heat
Rural wood
Move to coal in urban areas first
Hot in summer, cold in winter
Central heating developed
Coal gas used for cooking & lighting
Refrigeration was a huge advance
waste heat
Somewhat better efficiency
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

15. 3. Industry Industrial energy: used to produce goods 3000 BC 1300 AD
1900
2009
Human -> animal -> wind & water
Coal-fired steam power
Steam engines
Coke allows for better iron & steel production
Abundant high-heat allows for better brick, cement, glass & chemical manufacture
UK: 1/6 of all coal used for steel prodution
Electrolysis allows for aluminum smelting
Electric & petroleum motors
waste heat
Industrial energy down in industrialized West
Increasing where industrialization is ramping up
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

16. 3. Industrial energy: types of use
Energy is used for a variety of industrial purposes and processes.
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

17. 3. Industrial: machine drive electricity
Machine drive electricity: use of electricity to drive motors and machinery
Of course, mechanical motion can also be used to generate electricity.
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3; EIA

18. 3. Industrial energy: steel production
World Steel Association

19. 3. Industrial energy: aluminum ‘smelting’
Aluminum can only be removed from ore by a reduction-oxidation process and thus requires electricity rather than heat.
As a result, aluminum processors are often located closer to cheap electricity than aluminum ores.
Iceland has electricity.
But no bauxite

20. 3. Industrial energy: aluminum ‘smelting’
Global bauxite (aluminum ore) extraction as a percentage of the largest producer in Australia.
Iceland
Wikipedia [Data from British Geological Survey, 2005)

21. 3. Industrial energy = embodied energy
Each material has a different amount of embodied energy, the total energy used to make that material.
High values demonstrate the importance of recycling to recover much of the embodied energy.
Material
Energy cost (MJ/kg)
Production process
aluminum
Metal from aluminum ore
cement
5 - 9
From raw materials
copper
Metal from copper ore
plastics
From crude oil
glass
From sand
iron
From iron ore
bricks
2 - 5
Baked from clay
paper
25 – 50
From standing timber
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

22. 4. Transportation Transportation energy: used to move people and goods
3000 BC
1300 AD
1880s
1900
2009
human -> animal -> wind & water
Most people free to travel
Better roads
Railways
Steam-powered ships
Henry Ford’s Model-T
UK rail using 13 million tonnes of coal per year
waste heat
Air travel & individual autos used increasing share of energy
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

23. 4. Services
Services: all other use of energy (not farm, domestic, industry or transport)
3000 BC
1300 AD
1880s
1900
2009
human -> animal -> wind & water
waste heat
Communication
Information
Entertainment
Information age
Information revolution
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

24. 3. Energy use
3.4 UK energy use today

25. UK energy use today
UK total primary energy consumption in 2009: 9000 PJ (9000 E15 J)
UK population was 62 million in 2009
So, per capita energy use: 145 GJ per person
We’re about to dive into some data that demonstrates:
8840 PJ of energy is provided
6021 PJ of energy is delivered
There’s a discrepancy of 2819 PJ
5% (141 PJ) is used for shipping
95% is lost in conversion & delivery
Electricity generation is only 35% efficient
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

26. UK primary energy use & consumption
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

27. UK delivered energy consumption
Here we can look at the types and amounts of fuels used by each sector in the UK.
What stands out to you?
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

28. UK primary vs. delivered energy
~30% loss
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

29. UK industrial vs. domestic use
UK industrial use
UK domestic use
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

30. UK generation & distribution of electricity
~10% used
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

31. UK trends in energy use by sector
Energy use per capita has only increased by about 50% over the last 100 years.
Industry has become more efficient.
Transportation has doubled energy use; more autos.
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

32. 3.4 Comparisons with Demark, US, & other nations
3. Energy use
3.4 Comparisons with Demark, US, & other nations

33. Influence of energy insecurity
The UK has been fuel secure; first coal, then North Sea oil & gas.
However, prior to 1970, Denmark imported nearly all its fuel, 95% oil
When oil prices soared in the 1970s & 1980s Demark was forced to act and make changes:
Extreme energy conservation;
Power stations switched from oil to coal;
Expansion of use of CHP (combined use of heat & power);
Favored district heat over individual heating systems;
Requirements for insulation and building standards; &
More renewable energy, particularly wind & biomass.
waste heat
Results? (2007)
Energy use in Denmark has been stable since 1980.
District heat was used in 60% of homes & made up 12% of delivered energy.
CHP kept waste down to 22% vs. 32% in the UK.
Renewable energy rose to 14%.
Still dependent on oil, particularly for transportation.
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

34. Primary energy in UK vs. Denmark
Differences reflect resources, history & policy…..
waste heat
UK, 2009
Denmark, 2008
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

35. US & France (1970 – 2008) US: Per capita energy use is high.
Energy use rose across all energy sectors, averaging 40% increase.
Service sector saw the largest increase.
50% of electricity is generated with coal.
Coal-fired plants increased three-fold.
Electricity losses (27 EJ) are larger than total production in the UK.
waste heat
France: Per capita energy use is also high.
Energy use rose across all energy sectors:
By 75% to 2005, then decreased slightly.
75% of electricity is generated with nuclear power.
Uses less NG than UK or US.
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

36. India India: Overall, per capital energy use is very low, but rising.
Population is massive.
25% live in cities where energy use is higher and growing quickly.
50% of population (mainly rural) still lack electricity.
Coal is used for electricity
Efficiency is a low 28%
25% of all electric production is lost.
Agriculture uses 25% of all electricity; mainly for irrigation; diesel pumps are also used.
About 25% of primary energy is biofuel / biomass.
National programs push electrification and use of LNG vs. biomass.
waste heat
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

37. China China: Energy use low but rising.
Population is massive: rose to 1.3 billion by 2006, 80% live in cities.
In 2005, biomass still made up 20% of primary energy, and 50% of domestic fuel.
From 1980 – 2006, primary energy use increased three-fold, and GDP increased 10-fold.
From 1952 – 1978, energy / GDP ratio tripled, then fell with efficiency.
Industrial energy use is massive & rose 4-fold from 1980 – % of all new energy use is industrial. Industry consumes 70% of all electricity, most generated from coal. (100 years of coal are left.)
In 2006, China produced many global goods: 50% of cement & glass; 35% of steel; 28% of aluminum.
Agriculture uses 3.5% of all electricity, mainly pumping deep wells.
Transportation is up from 0.8 to 5 EJ, nearly all petroleum.
waste heat
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3

38. 3. Energy use
Trends in US energy use

39. Growth of consumption by sector
Not surprisingly, energy use most sectors has increased since WWII.
Why does industrial use seem to be leveling off more than other uses?
What was going on with industrial use in the late 1970s, early 1980s?
waste heat

40. But efficiency evolves as well
Energy use / $GDP is a measure of a nation’s energy efficiency or of the nature of the nation’s economy.
By the 1990s, the US was manufacturing less than China, but increasing energy costs and scarcity were causing the Chinese economy to become more efficient.
EIA

41. Domestic energy use
Energy use in homes hasn’t changed dramatically, but use has shifted.
Efficiency has increased, lowering energy use for heating and cooling.
But energy use for ‘electronics’ has increased.

42. Evolution of lighting technologies
Lighting technology continues to become more energy efficient.

43. Heating fuels have also changed
Heating fuels have changed… and changed back!
wood  coal  oil  electricity  natural gas  (RE) electricity
1900 -
1970s
1920 -
2000s
antiquity
Efficiency Vermont

44. Manufacturing energy use down

45. Manufacturing output, not so clearly
EIA:

46. Transportation in the US
In the US, transportation is dominated by the private auto.

47. Commercial services
Note that heating & lighting account for 2/3 of all energy use.
Energy Systems & Sustainability, 2/e, Chapter 3; EIA

48. And at Vermont Tech, Randolph Center
3. Energy use
Energy use in Vermont
And at Vermont Tech, Randolph Center

49. Vermont primary energy use (2015)
24.8% RE
71.4%
fossil fuels
EIA State Energy Profiles & Estimates

50. Vermont primary energy use (2015)
193,000 MWh
EIA State Energy Profiles & Estimates

51. Vermont energy use by sector (2015)
EIA State Energy Profiles & Estimates

52. Vermont energy stats (2015)
One in 6 Vermont households uses wood products as their primary heating source.
Vermont produces less than 35% of its electricity & depends on power from the New England grid and Canada.
In 2016, nearly all of Vermont's in-state net electricity generation was produced by renewable energy, including hydroelectric, biomass, wind, and solar resources.
In the years 2011 through 2016, Vermont installed 59.2 megawatts of commercial-scale solar photovoltaic capacity, 26.8 megawatts in 2016 alone.
Vermont has enacted the nation's first integrated renewable energy standard (RES), which makes utilities responsible both for supplying renewable electricity and for supporting reductions in customers' fossil fuel use.
EIA State Energy Profiles & Estimates

53. Vermont energy stats (2015)
value
US ranking
Population
600,000
Labor force
300,000
GDP
$31.1 billion 51
Average temperature
44.7 F 43
Average rainfall
39.1 inches 24
Per capita income
$50,321 20
Total energy consumption 50
Energy consumption per capita
211 million Btu/year 44
Energy cost per capita
$4,273 9
Energy production 47
Electricity production
RE production
204,000 MWh
RE consumption
24.9% of all energy consumption 8
Electricity costs
Energy intensity
8,1000 Btu/$ GDP
Total carbon emissions
6 millionn metric tonnes CO2
EIA State Energy Profiles & Estimates

54. Vermont Comprehensive Energy Planning

55. Vermont Tech primary energy use
We collect energy use data each year for all college locations. Here’s a graph of our primary energy use on the Randolph Center campus for 2007, expressed percentage of total Btu.
primary energy source
volume (gallons)
#2 fuel oil
12,552
#4 fuel oil
4,798
propane
15,201
gasoline
6,467
diesel
2,813
kWh
electricity
3,199,475

56. Vermont Tech RE production
Solar & biogas….....