1. Animal Adaptations
Bio Analyze the survival and reproductive success of organisms in terms of behavioral, structural, and reproductive adaptations.

2. Animals
Animals are multicellular heterotrophic organisms that lack cell walls.
Most members of the animal kingdom share other important characteristics, including:
sexual reproduction
movement
Vertebrates have a backbone.
Invertebrates do not have a backbone.
Invertebrates account for more than 95 percent of all animal species alive today.

3. Animal Reproductive Adaptations
Invertebrates are capable of sexual reproduction, and many can also reproduce asexually.
Some invertebrates are hermaphrodites.
Vertebrates are chordates that have a backbone.
Classes of vertebrates include fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.
Many characteristics of terrestrial vertebrates are adaptations to life on land and fall into two broad categories:
support of the body, and conservation of water.
In most fish and amphibian species, eggs and sperm are released directly into the water, where external fertilization takes place.

4. Animal Reproductive Adaptations
In reptiles, birds, and mammals, the egg and sperm unite within the body of the female with internal fertilization.
The fertilized eggs of many fishes, amphibians, reptiles, and birds develop outside the body. The embryo is nourished by the egg yolk and protected by jellylike layers or a shell.
Most mammals give birth to live offspring. Embryos develop in the female’s body, nourished by the mother’s blood supply, through the placenta, until the young are born.

5. Animal Structural Adaptations
Respiratory and Circulatory Systems
Gas exchange occurs in the gills of aquatic vertebrates.
Lungs evolved in terrestrial vertebrates.
Vertebrates have a closed circulatory system with a multichambered heart.

6. In some vertebrates, the multi-chambered heart has separate chambers and is thus more efficient.

7. Animal Structural Adaptations
Digestive and Excretory Systems
Digestion and absorption of nutrients occurs in the gut.
Most vertebrates must expel wastes while conserving water.
Most vertebrates convert ammonia to less toxic substances.
In most vertebrates, kidneys filter wastes from the blood while regulating water levels in the body.

8. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Behavior can be defined as any action that an individual carries out in response to a stimulus or to the environment.
Some behaviors are inherited actions that are performed effectively the first time without being taught. These types of behaviors are called innate behaviors.
Instinct is an innate behavior.
Ex. Suckling, weaving a web, etc.

9. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Learned behaviors
When behaviors are modified by experience, it is called learning.
The simplest type of learning is called habituation.
Habituation is a type of learning in which an animal learns to ignore a frequent, harmless stimulus.
Cows living next to a road learn to ignore the traffic noise.

10. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
A type of trial and error learning is called operant conditioning, in which specific animal behaviors are deterred or reinforced by external actions upon the animal.
A natural behavior is reinforced with a positive response so the behavior continues.
If the behavior is not reinforced it stops.
Ex. Mouse in a maze.

11. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which an animal learns to produce a specific response to a predictive stimulus in anticipation of receiving external reinforcement.
Pavlov’s dogs is the classic example. Pavlov rang a bell every time he fed his dogs. After time the dogs would salivate when they heard a bell even if there was no food.
This is how we train animals... And humans…

12. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
In problem-solving learning, an animal uses several learning mechanisms, such as watching an older offspring or trial and error, to learn a type of behavior.
One type of problem-solving, reasoning, involves the ability to solve a problem not previously encountered by the individual in a way that is not dictated by instinct.
This type of behavior occurs without trial-and-error, as if the animal developed an insight into how to solve the problem.
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13. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Imprinting is determined by both genes and learning. Imprinting is a form of learning in which a young animal forms permanent associations with its environment.
Imprinting occurs during a sensitive period, early in development.
Certain forms of learning that occur during this time are very difficult to change later.

14. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Feeding Behaviors
Animals must balance the need to obtain energy with the amount that they spend to get energy.
The optimality hypothesis is the idea that animals tend to behave in a way that maximizes food gathering, while minimizing effort and exposure to predators.
Because most resources are limited, competition for these resources occurs quite often.

15. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Aggressive Behavior
Aggressive behavior can be defined as physical conflict or threatening behavior between animals.
Aggressive behavior can be seen among males looking for a mate.

16. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Territorial Behavior
A territory is an area that an animal or group of animals occupies and defends from other members of he same species.
An animal will establish its territory in any number of ways and defend this area at all costs, because this helps guarantee the survival of that animal’s offspring.

17. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Dominance Hierarchies
Competition can lead to a clear ranking of individuals within the group, from most dominant to most subordinate. This type of ranking is called a dominance hierarchy.
This type of hierarchy reduces the need for competition and aggressive behavior as subordinates learn to submit to avoid conflict.

18. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Sexual Selection
Animals generally choose mates based on certain traits or behaviors, and this type of tendency is referred to as sexual selection.
These traits or behaviors will appear with increased frequency in a population, because these individuals are most likely to produce offspring.
Another means of attracting a mate involves certain behaviors and is called courtship.
In some species, courtship can include a complex series of behaviors called rituals.

19. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Parental Behavior
The benefit of parental care is that it increases the likelihood that young will survive to adulthood.
The costs are that parental care can generally only be provided for a small number of young because of the large energy investment by the parent.

20. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Biological Rhythms
A daily biological cycle is called a circadian rhythm.
There are also annual biological cycles.
Hibernation is a period of inactivity and lowered body temperature that some animals undergo in the winter as protection against the cold weather and lack of food.
Estivation is when animals slow their activity for the hot, dry summer months. During a period of estivation, many reptiles go underground where it's cooler.

21. Animal Behavioral Adaptations
Migratory Behavior
Migration is a periodic group movement that is characteristic of a population or species.
Migration is exhausting and risky yet it allows animals to find habitats with plentiful seasonal foods and provides nesting sites safe from predators.
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