1. Observation
Introduction

2. Learning Objectives Identify the features of Observational research.
Apply Event and Time Sampling and Behavioural Categories and Coding Frames to an observation.
Outline strengths/weaknesses of Event and Time Sampling.
The workbook will accompany this interactive Powerpoint.

3. Key terms Observation Event sampling Structured observation
Time sampling
Unstructured observation
Inter rater reliability
Naturalistic observation
Coding frames
Controlled observation
Behavioural categories
Covert observation
Overt observation
Participant observation
Non participant observation

4. Observation
Observation: where a researcher observes and records participants’ behaviour, but does not manipulate any variables.
Start with a general introduction about people watching, characteristics of it and why do we do it?
Elicit from students what the strengths and weaknesses of watching people are.
Elicit from students which core studies they’ve come across which use observations either as a method or a technique.
Stretch and Challenge: psychology is the scientific study of what? What can’t we observe?

5. Primary method: experiment
Observation
Observations can be used as part of an experiment.
I get participants to solve a puzzle in a hot or cold room, then I observe them to see how stressed they look.
I'm using an observation as part of my experiment (manipulating an IV to measure the effects on a DV).
IV: Cold
Primary method: experiment
Secondary technique:
observation
Elicit from students a study whereby observation was used as a secondary technique.
IV: Hot

6. Primary method: Observation
If I just use an observation to gather data on how stressed people are, with no manipulation or conditions, then I am carrying out observation research, not an experiment.
Primary method: Observation
No IV
Ensure students understand that there will be no hypothesis and no different groups of participants.
Stretch and Challenge: if there is no IV or manipulation, what can’t be established?

7. Observational Studies
Still use the same sampling methods
Volunteer, self selected, random, snowball
Still have the same ethical issues
CDCDWP
Respect, competence, integrity
Refresh on different types and strengths/weaknesses of sampling methods.
Elicit from students which ethical issues they think may apply to observations and why.
Confidentiality, Deception, Consent, Debrief, Withdrawal, Protection

8. Features of an observation
There are things we need to know about observations:
Structured/unstructured
Naturalistic/controlled
Covert/overt
Participant/non-participant
Event sampling/time sampling

9. Structured/unstructured
Using predefined coding categories for behaviour :
Easier to record
Easier to establish inter-rater reliability
Reductionist
Can reduce validity
Open to observer bias
Recording everything observed during the observation:
Increases validity
Applicable to a wide range of contexts
Harder to record
Harder to establish reliability
Open to observer bias
– Unstructured Observation
– Structured Observation
Useful clips for students to see the difference between the different types of observations.

10. Naturalistic/controlled
This technique involves observing participants in their natural environment.
It’s often used where it would be unethical to manipulate variables.
Think of examples where a naturalistic observation may be useful…
Identify possible strengths and weaknesses of using naturalistic observation.
This technique involves a situation being contrived by the researcher.
Usually conducted in a laboratory type setting.
Think of examples where you have seen the use of controlled observation.
Identify possible strengths and weaknesses of using controlled observation.
Be ready to give real life examples of naturalistic / controlled observations
Strengths of naturalistic observations = high ecological validity, low demand characteristics
Weaknesses of naturalistic observations = low control, ethical issues of privacy
Reverse for controlled observations
– Controlled Observation

11. Covert/overt Covert Overt
Participants do not know they are being observed:
Increases validity
Less social desirability/demand characteristics
Ethical issues
Participants do know they are being observed:
Reduces ethical issues
Social desirability/demand characteristics
Decreases validity
Stretch and Challenge: What ethical issues are associated with covert observation? Why would an overt observation decrease validity?

12. Participant/non-participant
The researcher is involved with the people they are observing:
Only way to observe behaviour (cults/gangs)
Greater accuracy and detail
Harder to remain objective
Can influence behaviour, reducing validity
Ethical issues
The researcher remains separate from the person they are observing:
Easier to remain objective
No influence on behaviour
Less ethical issues
Can’t observe certain behaviour
Less detail and accuracy
Encourage students to consider why they may choose to conduct a participant observation rather than non participant (try to link to their practical activity as part of the component)

13. Task Complete Activity 1: Observation Types question
– Additionally students could identify the types of observations used in this clip.

14. Event and time sampling
Sometimes an environment can be too busy to try and record everything that is happening.
So we decide how we are going to ‘sample’ the behaviour:
Event Sampling: every occurrence of behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded within a specified period of time
Time Sampling: behaviour, as specified on a predetermined checklist, is observed and recorded at specific time intervals (e.g. every 10 minutes for a period of 15 seconds)
It is very important to emphasise that this has nothing to do with sampling of participants!
Use table / tally charts on whiteboard / Smartboard to emphasise the difference between time and event sampling.
Note: this kind of ‘sample’ has nothing to do with participants!

15. Activities - Observation Task
We shall now practise observations.
You will be given one of two cards:
Structured observation with time sampling
Structured observation with event sampling
See the workbook for instructions.
Hand out cards: students are going to watch a clip of bad x factor auditions
Students to work in small groups to prepare a coding system
Can link back in to previous, e.g. is it covert / overt, naturalistic / controlled, etc to check for understanding of the key terms
Activity 2 – Conducting an observation
Activity 3 – Evaluating the observation
Stretch and Challenge: is this a participation or non-participant observation?

16. Event and Time Sampling Evaluation
Event Sampling
More representative over time
Easier, more reliable observations
Can miss important events
Less likely to miss predefined events
Increases validity and reliability
Can be hard if lots of behaviour occurs at once
Can miss events not coded for
Can link in to their mini activity: what problems did they find with their sampling of the behaviour on the clip?

17. Inter-rater Reliability
Inter-rater reliability: researchers observing the same behaviour and coding the behaviour in the same way.
If there is low inter-rater reliability it suggests:
the coding of behaviour is either vague or lacks validity
they’re not observing the same event.
Just having multiple observers DOES NOT provide inter-rater reliability; they have to agree first.
Again, could be linked to their own x factor observation: multiple students will have been looking at the same behaviour, does that mean they automatically get the same results? Why / why not? How could it be improved?

18. Designing Observations – Behavioural Categories
Behavioural categories – clearly defined behaviours are identified, which can be observed and recorded. These may be placed on a checklist and tallied every time that behaviour occurs.
Task – what behavioural categories could be included in an observation of:
a) A student doing their homework?
b) A child in a room with toys?
c) A teacher in a classroom?
Group work – What advantages and disadvantages are there with behavioural categories?
These are used when designing a structured observation to record operationalised behaviours.
What advantages and disadvantages are there with behavioural categories?
+They are clearly operationalised and observable e.g. punching and kicking rather than aggression.
+Creates qualitative data which is easier to analyse than qualitative data.
- Details are limited e.g. a tally chart only tells you how often something has occurred.
- Behaviours may be missed that are not on the pre-determined checklist

19. Designing Observations – Coding Frames
Coding Frames – Allow for more specific behaviours to be observed with in a behaviour category. Codes and abbreviations can be used to record the severity of behaviours or a different sub-type within a category.
Example of Behavioural Category – Kicking, Punching
Example Codes – Kung Fu Kick – KFK, Severity of strength of the Kicks–K1,K2,K3,K4,K5
Task – for the previous behavioural categories, list some coding frames.

20. Observation
General Evaluation

21. Learning Objectives Identify strengths and weaknesses in observations.
Evaluate observations using validity/reliability.
Conduct your own observation.

22. ! ! Ethical Issues Invasion of privacy
Confidentiality should be respected.
Public places: people expect to be seen by others.
C D C D W P (respect, integrity, confidentiality).
Need to know how you can address ethical issues. !
COVERT OBSERVATIONS DO NOT NECESSARILY BREACH INFORMED CONSENT ETHICS BECAUSE YOU CAN OBSERVE PEOPLE WITHOUT CONSENT IN AREAS WHERE THEY EXPECT TO BE OBSERVED !

23. Advantages See how people behave rather than how they say they behave.
Allows us to study variables it would be unethical to manipulate e.g. behaviour in prisons.
Useful as pilot to generate hypothesis for future research.
Remind students they need to bear this in mind when conducting their own observation.
Stretch and Challenge: If you’ve already done an observation and can predict the results will be what kind of hypothesis would you have?

24. Disadvantages Difficult to replicate
Does not provide us with thoughts or feelings, only behaviour
No manipulating variables, so can’t establish cause and effect
Observer bias
Observer effect
Time consuming and requires careful preparation

25. Validity and Reliability
To increase validity:
Carry out a covert observation so participants don’t change their behaviour (observer effect)
Double blind observations to reduce observer bias
Clearly operationalised coding system.
To increase reliability:
Clearly operationalised coding system
Check inter-rater reliability
Train researchers to use coding system
Conduct a pilot study to check behaviour categories.
Clearly identify that reliability = consistency and validity = measuring what we intend to measure
Remind students that they can use the same issue for reliability and validity but must clearly contextualise and distinguish between the two, e.g. covert observations allow us to see natural behaviour (reduced demand characteristics) which will increase the validity as we will see how people would actually behave, however covert observations could raise ethical issues, which could impact on the ability to accurately replicate the research, which could lower the reliability

26. Conducting an observation
In groups you are going to carry out an observation.
You may decide which type of observation you will conduct and for which type of behaviour. Your proposal must be checked by your teacher (ethical approval) before you start!
Conduct your observation and collate your findings. You will need to produce a report for peer review.
Students must produce a brief of what they intend to research to be submitted to teacher (ethics board) for approval before commencing.
Refer to Activity 4 instructions

27. Assessment: Define these key terms and identify strengths and weaknesses
Observation
Event sampling
Structured observation
Time sampling
Unstructured observation
Inter rater reliability
Naturalistic observation
Coding frames
Controlled observation
Behavioural categories
Covert observation
Overt observation
Participant observation
Non participant observation

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