Lecture Slides Essentials of Sociology Sixth Edition

Lecture Slides Essentials of Sociology Sixth Edition
Anthony Giddens Mitchell Duneier Richard P. Appelbaum Deborah Carr

Essentials of Sociology Chapter 3 Socialization, the Life Course, and Aging
[6th edition, different art/format, etc.]

The Big Questions How are children socialized? 3
Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 3

The Big Questions How are children socialized?
Learn about socialization (including gender socialization), and know the most important agents of socialization. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 4

The Big Questions What are the five major stages of the life course? 5

The Big Questions What are the five major stages of the life course?
Learn the various stages of the life course, and see the similarities and differences among different cultures and historical periods. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 6

The Big Questions How do people age? 7

The Big Questions How do people age?
Understand that aging is a combination of biological, psychological, and social processes. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 8

The Big Questions How do people age?
Understand that aging is a combination of biological, psychological, and social processes. Consider key theories of aging, particularly those that focus on how society shapes the social roles of older people and that emphasize aspects of age stratification. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 9

The Big Questions What are the challenges of aging in the United States? Evaluate the experiences of growing old in the contemporary United States. Identify the physical, emotional, and financial challenges faced by older adults. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 12

The Big Questions One of the easiest ways to see the effects of socialization is to witness an instance of someone failing to behave within the norms of a given society. As we have seen in stories in the news, Americans tend to react very strongly to children who don’t conform to gender norms. Your textbook begins this chapter with the story of six-year-old transgender student Coy Mathis (pictured above) and her parents, who successfully sued their school district to guarantee Coy the right to use the girls’ bathroom. This illustrates that while social institutions such as schools often encourage conformity to norms of behavior, they can change over time. [Kevin Tachman/Wire Image/Getty Images.] Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

Key Concepts Socialization
The example of Coy Mathis illustrates the importance and complexities of socialization in everyday life. Socialization is a process of social interaction through which people acquire both the way of life of their society and also personality and identity. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 14

Key Concepts Socialization: The social processes through which we develop an awareness of social norms and values and achieve a distinct sense of self Through socialization, we internalize the culture of our society. The result of successful socialization is that the world becomes so comprehensible that we can take it for granted. Though culture is something that we, as a society, create, once it is “out there,” it acts back on us. In other words, culture becomes a social force that has powerful consequences for us. Perhaps the first place in our lives where culture shows its influence is in the process of socialization. Human infants, for example, are born not having any idea of how to behave in social situations. They eat, sleep, relieve themselves, and cry; by and large, all the rest must be taught, and that happens in the process of socialization. Biology has to be manipulated by culture, so that these infants, as they get older, will understand their own culture so fully that it will feel natural. This happens through socialization. It is, however, very important to recognize that socialization has two necessary parts: one is that we internalize culture, and the other is that we construct an identity. We’ll be going back and forth a bit between culture and identity (what you might be used to thinking of as personality), so keep in mind that both are crucial to the success of socialization. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 15

Key Concepts Social Reproduction
Another way of talking about this is to discuss social reproduction. Through socialization, society reproduces itself (for better or worse). Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 16

Key Concepts Social Reproduction: The process whereby societies have structural continuity over time Values that we might consider negative, such as racial prejudices, are often taught to youngsters, whether intentionally or not. At the same time, it is through socialization that we learn the highest ideals of our society, all the way from the golden rule to good citizenship. When socialization is successful, it feels natural—which may feel, for some people, like it is inherited. From one generation to the next, the norms, values, and behavioral expectations are taught, and deviations are often punished or sanctioned. This process of teaching and learning is lifelong and is crucial to maintaining societal functions. Social reproduction is the process whereby societies have structural continuity over time. Social reproduction is an important pathway through which parents (and other agents of socialization) transmit or produce values, norms, and social practices among their children. The culture of a society is carried on through the process of socialization. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 17

How Are Children Socialized?
One of the most distinctive features of being human (as compared to nonhuman animals) is self-awareness. Self-awareness begins to develop in the early years of childhood (as opposed to being innate, or “natural”). But how do children develop self-awareness? [Kathey Sloane/Science Source] Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 18

Theories of Child Development There are several different sociological theories (often overlapping with psychological and social-psychological theories) that can help us understand this process. These theories are much debated, in part because each theory emphasizes different aspects of socialization. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 19

Theories of Child Development G. H. Mead and the development of self G. H. Mead was an American sociologist and philosopher who practiced symbolic interactionism. This means that he examined social life through the lens of interactions between people and the meanings that constitute and emerge from those interactions. He is perhaps best known for his work on socialization, which involved the study of the development of selfhood from its earliest stages. In talking about the way in which small children develop a sense of self, Mead examined what we call primary socialization. This is the part of socialization that takes place for very small children with their significant others, including parents, siblings, grandparents, and other important caregivers. During this stage, most of the learning takes place through observation and the imitation of behaviors. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 20

Theories of Child Development G. H. Mead and the development of self Social self In terms of child development, Mead focused on how children learn to use the concepts of “I” and “me.” According to G. H. Mead, a child achieves self-consciousness by becoming aware of what he termed the social self. The social self develops during primary socialization. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 21

Theories of Child Development G. H. Mead and the development of self Social self: The identity conferred upon an individual by the reactions of others The social self is the identity conferred upon the individual by the reactions of others. According to Mead, children have two selves, the “I” and the “me.” The “I” is the part of the self that is spontaneous and unreflective. The “me” is the part of the self that is being shaped and molded by society; it is the social self, and the part of the self that is observable. Let’s consider an example: A little girl falls while in a race with her friends. The “I” is the part of her self that wants to cry from pain and embarrassment. The “me” is the part that tries not to cry because it is not socially okay for people to cry while others are watching. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 22

Theories of Child Development G. H. Mead and the development of self Self-consciousness For Mead, the recognition of the social self leads to the development of self-consciousness. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 23

Theories of Child Development G. H. Mead and the development of self Self-consciousness: awareness of one’s distinct social identity as a person separate from others So what actually happens in primary socialization as the child develops a social self and a sense of self consciousness? We’ll start with “taking the role of the other.” Over time, infants learn that certain kinds of conduct are appropriate with certain kinds of people: gender roles, family roles, and so on. For children it is largely through play and games that they learn to actually act out these parts. A few examples of some kinds of play where children are learning roles include playing house, dress-up, cops and robbers, etc. At the same time as they begin to recognize roles, children also start taking on the attitudes of the other. That is, they begin to associate certain meanings with those roles and behaviors. Prior to having the ability to talk, infants learn to understand the meaning of gestures, expressions, tone of voice (regardless of the actual words), and so on. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 24

Theories of Child Development G. H. Mead and the development of self Generalized other The next thing that happens is generalizing the other. Here, the child learns to relate, not just to significant others, but also to other people. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 25

Theories of Child Development G. H. Mead and the development of self Generalized other: Concept according to which the individual takes over the general values of a given group or society during the socialization process At this stage, the child begins to understand that attitudes and roles pertain, not only to specific people, but also to broader roles and attitudes (for example, children think that all women of some general age are “moms”). Roles and attitudes have gone from the particular to the universal. Now there are generalized norms and meanings. It is at this stage that we appropriate society: the “generalized other” is culture—it is society. The outside world becomes our world and is embedded deeply in our consciousness. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 26

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Another important perspective on socialization is Jean Piaget’s work on stages of cognitive development. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 27

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Cognition Piaget focused on cognition in his theory of child development. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 28

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Cognition: Human thought processes involving perception, reasoning, and remembering Cognition is comprised of human thought processes involving perception, reasoning, and remembering. What interested Piaget was the development of the way children make sense of the world around them. Piaget’s theory describes four general stages of child development. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 29

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage First, there is the sensorimotor stage. According to Piaget, the first stage of human cognitive development is one in which a child’s awareness of his or her environment is dominated by touch. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 30

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage Birth–2 years Exploring the environment This is also the stage during which the infant begins differentiating him- or herself from the environment. Over the course of the first two years of life, the infant will begin to distinguish between self and other via sensory exploration: touching, tasting, watching, and so on. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 31

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage The second stage is the preoperational stage. According to Piaget, this is the stage at which a child has advanced sufficiently to master basic modes of logical thought. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 32

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage 2–7 years Egocentric Here children from ages two to seven also gain mastery of language and, thereby, the ability to interact with others. This stage is often referred to as egocentric because during this period a child sees the world only from her or his own perspective. According to Piaget, the characteristic quality of a child during the early years of life involves understanding objects and events in the environment solely in terms of the child’s own position. There is, as of yet, no development of empathy. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 33

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage Concrete operational stage The third stage is the concrete operational stage. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 34

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage Concrete operational stage 7–11 years Basic abstraction In this third stage, the child’s thinking is based primarily on physical perception of the world. The child is less egocentric and is developing the beginnings of abstract thought, but is still not yet capable of dealing with higher abstract concepts or hypothetical situations. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 35

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage Concrete operational stage Formal operational stage Finally, according to Piaget, comes the formal operational stage, which he claimed some people never achieve. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 36

Theories of Child Development Jean Piaget and the stages of cognitive development Sensorimotor stage Preoperational stage Concrete operational stage Formal operational stage 11–15 years Further abstraction and hypothetical reasoning This is the stage of human cognitive development during which the growing child becomes capable of handling abstract concepts and hypothetical situations. By adolescence, most people will have gained the ability to deal with more complicated levels of abstraction and to identify multiple explanations when problem solving. A certain amount of formal education is very important in mastering the skills of this stage of development. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 37

Agents of Socialization Agents of socialization: Groups or social contexts within which processes of socialization take place Agents of socialization: groups or social contexts within which processes of socialization take place. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 39

Agents of Socialization Families Schools After the family, other agents of socialization, including schools, peer groups, and the mass media, begin to compete for influence, which explains the great deal of attention parents pay to these institutions and the concerns they have about them. Schools, for example, teach us, not only formal educational lessons, but also rules of behavior in group settings, norms for relationships with authority figures, and even how to view ourselves according to the way our teachers treat us. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 43

Agents of Socialization Families Schools Peer relationships The mass media Given the rising importance of media in socialization (which formerly was not one of the most significant factors in the socialization process), a great deal of research has begun to examine the impact of various forms: television, YouTube, movies, video games, music, and others. In recent years researchers have become interested in studying the ways that video games (especially violent video games) affect children. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 47

Agents of Socialization Families Schools Peer relationships The mass media Work As adults, our workplaces are often sites for what we call secondary socialization, a process during which we are socialized into some new role. Other arenas for secondary socialization include the military, college, prison, and other social settings in which we immerse ourselves. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 48

Social Roles Much of what we learn during socialization is what constitutes particular social roles. For example, children typically learn very quickly what (in their home) is a mommy-role and what is a daddy-role. So what are roles? Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 49

Social Roles Social roles: Socially defined expectations of an individual in a given status, or occupying a particular social position Roles are patterns of conduct that we usually think about as fixed. In reality they shift, but of course, as small children we don’t know that. Through our experiences with our families, schools, peers, and the media, we learn the basic contours of many roles, including parents, siblings, teachers, troublemakers, and many more. In every society, individuals play a number of social roles. It’s important to recognize, however, that though the behaviors attached to these roles feel natural, this is simply the result of our having been successfully socialized into a particular culture that supports them. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 50

Identity We’ve been talking a lot about how we learn the norms of our society via socialization, but there is also another critical piece to consider Socialization is also the process by which we construct our identities. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 51

Identity Social identity Through socialization, we gain both a social identity and a self-identity. Our social identity is what we can call an objective identity, as it is largely determined by external relationships, while our self-identity is a subjective identity, meaning it is how we see ourselves. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 52

Identity Social identity: The characteristics that other people attribute to an individual Socialization involves, not only the internalization of culture, but also the construction of self. Our social identities are determined by many things, including gender, race, religion, job, marital status, and other social categories in which others observe us. Each person has at least one social identity (objective identity) and a self-identity (subjective identity). In fact, we typically have multiple social identities. All of us actually have many social identities. I am, for example, teacher, parent, child, sibling, employee, and many more. These are all objective identities, as they are the ways that other people know me, and my role varies with each one. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 53

Identity Self-identity We also all have a self-identity, which is essentially some combination of parts of these that we understand as our “true” self; it’s us “keeping it real.” Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 54

Identity Self-identity: The ongoing process of self-development and definition of our personal identity through which we formulate a unique sense of ourselves and our relationship to the world around us From a psychological perspective, we might think of self-identity as something like personality, but sociologically it is important to think of this self-understanding as a kind of identity that is socially constructed. Usually we think of personality as something innate, even something we are born with, but identity is something we have to achieve, and it is also something that can change. Identity is, in fact, a social process, not a static thing. All people have multiple social identities, in large part because we all must interpret how different people view us. Our self-identity is the one that we take on as being “true” or “real”; it is how we see ourselves. Interaction between society and the individual shapes the self-identity. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 55

Identity As your textbook points out, today we have “unprecedented opportunities to create our own identities” (p. 82), and that is very much a function of the changes that have taken place in modern societies. Self-identity counts for more today than in earlier periods. One interesting way of thinking about the construction of identity involves the way in which this process has changed over time. It used to be that if you were born into a poor family, you would be poor. In fact, you would almost certainly “be” whatever it was your same-sex parent was. It also used to be that people didn’t move much, that religion was central to who they were, and that their community played a significant role in the construction of their identity. In essence, your social identity was your identity. In fact, the idea of having a unique sense of self is a modern idea. Today, the construction of identity deals with a new situation in which: Family is no longer destiny (not that it’s not important, but there is much more social mobility today than in earlier time periods). People move around a great deal. Religion is no longer a lifelong commitment nor a determinant of the self. Because of all this change, social identity is much more fluid and we have a much stronger sense of self-identity. In fact, perhaps it is because of all of this change that our desire for self-identity is nearly limitless. [© Chris Cooper-Smith/Alamy Stock Photo] Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 56

Gender Socialization Now that we’ve talked a great deal about socialization in general, let’s think for a few minutes about a particular type of socialization that happens the world over: gender socialization. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 57

Gender Socialization Gender socialization: The learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and status Gender socialization refers to the process of learning “appropriate” gendered behavior through agents of socialization. In every society there are different social expectations for men and women, and we learn about these from the earliest days of our lives. Though gender roles have changed, they remain prevalent and powerful. Boys and girls are made aware, in a multitude of ways, what norms and behaviors are expected of them, and in many—if not all—societies, they are sanctioned if they deviate too strongly from these. Though a great deal has changed in terms of gender roles here in the United States, gender socialization remains a very powerful institution. We teach boys to be active and independent and girls to be docile and nurturing, even when we don’t realize we’re doing it. As your textbook points out, research has shown that if a baby is dressed as a boy, adults treat that child one way, and if the same baby is dressed as a girl, adults treat the child in quite a different way. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 58

Gender Socialization Reactions of parents and adults Studies show that even parents who do not believe they are socializing their children according to gender are, in fact, doing so. Gender socialization has been found to begin before birth. Parental presence and behavior play a role in gender socialization. Toys, television, movies, and even books also contribute to differential role construction. Cross-culturally, it is considered okay for girls to choose boys’ toys, but not vice versa. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 59

Gender Socialization Reactions of parents and adults Gender learning What is even more surprising is that gender socialization begins before babies are even born. Now that most women find out the sex of their future babies about halfway through their pregnancies, research has shown that people treat the mothers-to-be of boys differently than those of girls. After birth, gifts and cards to the family continue to bear out gendered stereotypes, and at this point the process of gender socialization is well under way. From the child’s perspective, the roles that parents take—who changes diapers, who cooks dinner, and so on—are all internalized in the process of primary socialization. The toys and books that parents bring home tend to reinforce cultural narratives that favor boys, as do television programs and movies aimed at small children. Strength and activity are considered to be “boy” traits, while passivity and beauty are considered to be “girl” traits. Even children’s clothing reinforces these ideas, as small girls are put in dresses and tight-fitting clothes that inhibit movement, while boys are more frequently dressed in play clothes. A final way of bringing home the point here is that in nearly all societies, while it is okay for girls to choose boy-typed toys and activities, it is not okay for boys to choose girl-typed toys and activities. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 60

In her Pink & Blue Project, photographer JeongMee Yoon records girls’ obsession with the color pink. The gendertyped packaging and color coding that we see in children’s toys and clothing has implications for their later preferences and is a key source of early socialization. [JeongMee Yoon] Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 61

Gender Socialization Reactions of parents and adults Gender learning Race socialization Race socialization: The specific verbal and nonverbal messages that older generations transmit to younger generations regarding the meaning and significance of race Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 63

What Are the Five Major Stages of the Life Course?
One way of broadening the scope of our conversation about socialization is to consider the stages of the life course, which is an important subfield in sociology. [Robert King/Newsmakers/Getty Images] Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 64

Life Course: The various transitions and stages people experience during their lives Social research that takes this approach begins with the premise that human life is more than a biological process, and that there are, in fact, distinguishable social stages to the human life. Social scientists that look at the life course examine variation between stages, as well as variation in the same stage in different societies or subgroups. They may also examine the way the life course has changed over time. One of the things we can learn from studying the life course, then, is how and why the structure of societies has changed to incorporate these new phases. Additionally, we are reminded of the dynamic nature of society and human social life. Social scientists that are interested in how being human changes over time look at five stages. The five major stages of the life course are childhood, teenager, young adulthood, midlife, and later life. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 66

As indicated in this chart, individuals pass through a number of key transitions during the course of their lives. The transition to adulthood is being delayed today, especially in high-income countries. The transition to adulthood includes benchmarks such as getting married and having children. In many northern and western European nations, young adults have their first child before marriage, while in cohabitating relationships. This graph charts the following numbers: mean age of women at first marriage, mean age of women at first birth, and life expectancy at birth for both sexes in 2015. These statistics are provided for nine countries: Nigeria, Pakistan, Jordan, Poland, the United States, Japan, Germany, Spain, and Sweden. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 73

How Do People Age? In the United States today, the elderly (those age 65 and older) are the fastest growing segment of the population. As medical care, high-quality nutrition, and changes in lifestyle have extended the lifespan, we now live in a society where quite significant portions of the population fall into this category. Not surprisingly, gerontological medicine and what we call social gerontology have grown as areas of specialization. [Christopher Capozziello/© The New York Times/Redux] Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 74

How Do People Age? As indicated in this figure, there has been a great increase in the proportion of the population age sixty-five and older. In 1900, only one in thirty people in the United States was age sixty-five or older. Today, more than one in eight is age sixty-five or older, and this proportion is projected to rise to one in five by the year 2030 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2010c). The same trend is found in all industrially advanced countries. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2010. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 75

How Do People Age? The Meaning of “Age” What does it mean to age?
This topic has grown in importance as the elderly have become the fastest-growing segment of the population. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 76

How Do People Age? The Meaning of “Age” Aging
Aging is not simply a biological process; it is also one that is affected by both social structures and individual agency. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 77

How Do People Age? The Meaning of “Age”
Aging: The combination of biological, psychological, and social processes that affect people as they grow older Sociologists define aging as the combination of biological, psychological, and social process that affect people as they grow older. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 78

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations Social gerontologists offer many theories regarding the nature of aging in U.S. society. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 79

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations Social gerontologists Social gerontology is the sociological study of aging and the elderly. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 80

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations Social gerontologists: Social scientists who study older adults and life-course influences on aging processes Social gerontologists are social scientists who study older adults and the life-course influences on aging processes. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 81

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations The first generation of theories: Functionalism Functionalist theories of aging are seen as the first-generation of theories of social gerontology. There have been several incarnations of theorizing about aging, beginning with functionalist perspectives that emphasized the adaptation to changing social roles that the elderly must go through, and what responses to those changes are good—meaning functional—for society. Later theorists adopted conflict explanations, and today, theorists typically adopt more flexible, complex approaches that incorporate more agency on behalf of the elderly themselves. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 82

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations The first generation of theories: Functionalism Disengagement theory Disengagement theory is a functionalist theory of aging that holds that it is functional for society to remove people from their traditional roles when they become elderly, thereby freeing up those roles for others. This theory suggests that as people become older and frailer (with an assumption that the two go together), they should adapt to this change and remove themselves from important social roles, making way for others. It’s not difficult to imagine the kinds of critiques that quickly emerged following the appearance of this perspective. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 83

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations The first generation of theories: Functionalism Disengagement theory Activity theory One of the theories that came as a reaction to disengagement theory was activity theory. This theory claims that active individuals are good for society, and that remaining active is good for individuals. Proponents of this perspective argue that the elderly should remain engaged in all aspects of social life for as long as they can. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 84

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations The first generation of theories: Functionalism Disengagement theory Activity theory Continuity theory Another approach, continuity theory, builds on the same idea but, using findings from the literature on activity theory, claims that the elderly are best served by remaining engaged in the same kinds of activities and roles that defined their earlier lives. In other words, taking up something entirely new seems to be less advantageous than building on solid foundations. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 85

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations The second generation of theories: Social conflict In the 1970s and 1980s, sociologists in general moved away from functionalist theories, and those studying aging made this shift as well. One direction this took was toward examining sources of conflict between the aging and society at large. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 86

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations The second generation of theories: Social conflict Social conflict theories of aging These theories used a social conflict perspective, which emphasized the ways in which the larger social structure helps to shape the opportunities available to older adults. Those taking this social conflict approach focused on lack of access and opportunities for the elderly and illuminated growing social problems affecting them such as poverty and poor health. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 87

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations The third generation of theories: Life course perspectives More recently still, life course theorists recommend treat aging and the elderly as part of a lifelong process, shaped both by historical context and by the decisions made both earlier and at present. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 88

How Do People Age? Growing Old: Trends and Competing Sociological Explanations The third generation of theories: Life course perspectives Life course theory In life course theory, the entire life process, and not just some distinct aspects of “being old,” are seen as shaping the experience of aging. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 89

What Are the Challenges of Aging in the United States?
One interesting approach to studying aging is to compare the process across societies. In the United States, the elderly sometimes suffer from feelings of social isolation and a lack of respect. They experience prejudice, abuse, and health problems at disproportional rates. Though we pay a certain amount of lip-service to caring for and respecting the elderly in the United States, it seems quite clear that they are, in fact, one of our most vulnerable populations. These problems are not universal, but rather are related to the values of U.S. culture. As people live to increasingly older ages, they become diverse in terms of age itself. Sociologists have found it useful to distinguish between different age categories among the population aged sixty-five and older. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 90

Young Old: 65–74 years Old Old: 75–84 years The next category is what sociologists call the old old. This is the sociological term for persons between the ages of 75 and 84. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 92

Young Old: 65–74 years Old Old: 75–84 years Oldest Old: 85 years and older The last category is what sociologists call the oldest old. This is the sociological term for persons age 85 and older. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 93

Health Problems In terms of health problems, it is not surprising that the elderly experience more health problems than other age cohorts. One very significant concern lies with how well our ailing health-care systems will be able to deal with the very large cohort of baby boomers as they enter the category of the elderly. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 94

Health Problems Elder Abuse Far more troubling than health problems at this point is the problem of elder abuse. Elder abuse is a drastically underreported crime and, sadly, happens quite often at the hands of family members and loved ones, including spouses. On the subject of elder abuse, the research offers a complicated picture. While, for example, some research suggests a real problem of elder abuse at the hands of frustrated and resentful adult children, much research has discredited this as a false stereotype. This newer research shows that much abuse of the elderly comes at the hands of nonrelatives. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 95

Health Problems Elder Abuse Social Isolation Some older Americans feel quite isolated, and there is concern that due to current social trends—including divorce, for example—that the number may well increase over time. Stereotypes about the social isolation of the elderly do not stand up to current research. Research in the 1990s and 2000s suggest that the elderly are not nearly as alone as popular narratives might suggest. In fact, both the elderly and their adult children report that their relationships remain both important and active, even across geographical distance. For now, most adult children maintain regular contact with their parents, even if they live far apart. Given changing family patterns, and particularly high rates of divorce, this could change as more people live alone. Many older adults are forced into retirement and some into nursing homes; they lose loved ones; and they are sent into totally new lives at a time when such drastic change may be most difficult. The concern is that this will change over time, as late-twentieth-century patterns of family life move into the aging population. This would mean that more elderly individuals would be living alone than ever before, especially elderly women. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 96

Health Problems Elder Abuse Social Isolation Prejudice Ageism One type of prejudice is ageism, discrimination on the basis of age (which is against federal law). Like all prejudices, it is fueled in part by stereotypes. Older adults are frequently seen as perpetually lonely, sad, infirm, forgetful, dependent, senile, old-fashioned, inflexible, and embittered. These stereotypes may be changing, and experts agree that baby boomers may play a critical role in further helping to dissolve stereotypes of the frail, senile older adult. An important point to make here is that these trends regarding the elderly are not universal. Depending on the norms and values—the cultures—of other societies, treatment of the elderly may be far better or worse than it is here in the United States. As with all social norms and behaviors, we learn how to treat the various members of our society. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 98

Digital Life Many of us wonder what we will look and feel like when we’re in our seventies, eighties, or even older. Now, we also can use a range of smartphone apps or websites to project certain aspects of our future, such as our life expectancy or appearance, with apps like Age My Face. As sociologists, we should consider what a rising interests in these apps says about our changing attitudes toward the elderly, as well as what the role of the elderly will be like in the future. That wraps up our Chapter 3 lecture on socialization. In the next chapter, we will be talking about social interaction and everyday life in the age of the Internet. [Ronnie Kaufman/Larry Hirshowitz/Getty Images] Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 99

Anthony Giddens Mitchell Duneier Richard P. Appelbaum Deborah Carr
This concludes the Lecture Slides for Essentials of Sociology, Sixth Edition Chapter 3 Anthony Giddens Mitchell Duneier Richard P. Appelbaum Deborah Carr Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 100

Chapter 3 Clicker Questions
1. What are the main agents of socialization in contemporary society? a. family, schools, the political system, the economic system, and the urban system b. family, schools, peer groups, the mass media, and work c. movies, videos, computers, and the Internet d. newspapers, magazines, radio, and television Answer: b Feedback: How Are Children Socialized? p. 77. The family, schools, peer groups, social organizations (such as sports teams), the media, and eventually the workplace are the main agents of socialization. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.

2. George Herbert Mead’s ideas have formed the basis of which general theoretical approach in sociology? a. symbolic interactionism b. Marxism c. functionalism d. postmodernism Answer: a Feedback: How Are Children Socialized? p. 76. Mead’s ideas formed the basis of symbolic interactionism, and they have had a very broad impact in sociology. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 102

3. What role does socialization play in individuality or free will? a. Learning the value of freedom is a critical aspect of being socialized in American culture. b. Socialization teaches children the proper limits of freedom—when to play and when to obey. c. Socialization is essential to our sense of self-identity and our capacity for independent thought and action. d. Socializing with others is important to our sense of individuality. Answer: c Feedback: How Are Children Socialized? p. 81. The cultural settings in which we are born and mature to adulthood influence our behavior, but that does not mean that humans are robbed of individuality or free will. In the course of socialization, each of us develops a sense of identity and the capacity for independent thought and action. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 103

4. Which of the following statements about gender socialization is correct? a. Images of females outnumber those of males in the majority of movies and television shows. b. In popular cartoons, most of the leading figures are male, and males dominate the active pursuits. c. Children do not know whether they are boys or girls until age five. d. Most parents are aware that they treat male infants differently than female infants. Answer: b Feedback: How Are Children Socialized? pp. 84–85. Most of the leading figures in cartoons are male, and males dominate the active pursuits. By age two, children know whether they are boys or girls, and they can usually categorize others accurately. Parents tend to believe their reactions to male and female infants are the same, even though they are markedly different. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 104

5. Which of the following best captures the definition of the life course? a. the end of life, old age, and death—or when life has run its course b. the physiological changes associated with aging c. the daily routines necessary for maintaining physiological and social subsistence d. the various transitions individuals experience during their lives Answer: d Feedback: What Are the Five Major Stages of the Life Course? p. 86. The life course is defined as the various transitions and stages people experience during their lives. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 105

6. What is the demographic change that will likely alter our society’s definition of the life course in the next fifty years? a. The population will become younger as the proportion of children increases. b. The population will become more middle-aged as the proportion of adults increases. c. The population will become older as the proportion of the elderly increases. d. The population will become more predominantly female as the proportion of men continues to decline. Answer: c Feedback: What Are the Five Major Stages of the Life Course? p. 89. There has been a great increase in the proportion of the population over age sixty-five, and this proportion is projected to rise steadily over the next forty years. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 106

7. Jean Piaget's theory of child development is based on the a. stages of cognitive development. b. emergence of a sense of self, or of self-awareness. c. importance of sociobiology. d. importance of psychopathology. Answer: a Feedback: How Are Children Socialized? p. 76. Piaget described several distinct stages of cognitive development during which children learn to think about themselves and their environment. Each stage involves the acquisition of new skills and depends on the successful completion of the preceding one. Copyright © 2017 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. 107

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