1. Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital
Species: set of individuals who can mate and produce fertile offspring
8 million to 100 million species
1.9 million identified
Unidentified are mostly in rain forests and oceans

2. Natural Capital: Major Components of the Earth’s Biodiversity
Figure 4.2: Natural capital.
This diagram illustrates the major components of the earth’s biodiversity—one of the earth’s most important renewable resources and a key component of the planet’s natural capital (see Figure 1-4, p. 9). See an animation based on this figure at CengageNOW. Question: What role do you play in such degradation?
Fig. 4-2, p. 82

3. VIDEO: THE BIODIVERSITY CODE

4. 4-5 What Is Species Diversity and Why Is It Important?
Concept 4-5 Species diversity is a major component of biodiversity and tends to increase the sustainability of ecosystems.

5. Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of Species in a Particular Place
Species richness:
The number of different species in a given area
Species evenness:
Comparative number of individuals
Sample A could be described as being the more diverse as it contains three species to sample B's two. But there is less chance in sample B than in sample A that two randomly chosen individuals will be of the same species.

6. Species Diversity: Variety, Abundance of Species in a Particular Place
Diversity varies with geographical location
The most species-rich communities
Tropical rain forests
Coral reefs
Ocean bottom zone
Large tropical lakes
Figure 4.12: These two types of ecosystems vary greatly in species richness. An example of high species richness is a coral reef (left), with a large number of different species. On the other hand, this grove of aspen trees in Alberta, Canada (right) has a small number of different species, or low species richness.

7. Global Map of Plant Biodiversity
Figure 6 Global map of plant biodiversity.
Supplement 8, Fig. 6, p. S36

8. Science Focus: Species Richness on Islands
Species equilibrium model, theory of island biogeography
Rate of new species immigrating should balance with the rate of species extinction
Island size and distance from the mainland need to be considered

9. Core Case Study: Southern Sea Otters: Are They Back from the Brink of Extinction?
live in kelp forests
eat sea urchins
hunted in 1900s
1977 declared endangered
 Increased 300 to 2800
keystone species
 protect kelp forest)
Figure 5.1: An endangered southern sea otter in Monterey Bay, California (USA), uses a stone to crack the shell of a clam (left). It lives in a giant kelp bed (right). Scientific studies indicate that the otters act as a keystone species in a kelp forest system by helping to control the populations of sea urchins and other kelp-eating species.

10. How Have We Affected the Word’s Terrestrial Ecosystems?
Concept 7-3 In many areas, human activities are impairing ecological and economic services provided by the earth’s deserts, grasslands, forests, and mountains.

11. NATURAL CAPITAL DEGRADATION
Major Human Impacts on Terrestrial Ecosystems
Deserts
Soil salinization from irrigation
Depletion of groundwater
Land disturbance and pollution from mineral extraction
Grasslands
Conversion to cropland
Release of CO2 to atmosphere from burning grassland
Overgrazing by livestock
Oil production and off-road vehicles in arctic tundra
Forests
Clearing for agriculture, livestock grazing, timber, and urban development
Conversion of diverse forests to tree plantations
Damage from off-road vehicles
Pollution of forest streams
Mountains
Agriculture
Timber extraction
Hydroelectric dams and reservoirs
Mineral extraction
Increasing tourism
Urban air pollution
Increased ultraviolet radiation from ozone depletion
Soil damage from off-road vehicles
Large desert cities
Soil destruction by off-road vehicles
Stepped Art
Fig. 7-18, p. 165

12. Public Lands in the US
Multiple-use lands: National Forests; National Resource Lands (managed by BLM) - used for logging, mining, oil and gas extraction, livestock grazing; hunting, fishing, recreation, farming; conservation watersheds, soil and wildlife resources
Moderately-restricted use lands: National Wildlife Refuges (managed by USFWS)- protect habitats and breeding grounds for waterfowl and large game for hunters; some protect endangered species; allow hunting, trapping fishing, oil & gas development, mining, grazing, military activities, farming, logging
Restricted-use lands: National Park System (managed by Natl. Parks service)- includes natl. recreation areas, monuments, memorials, historical sites, trails, rivers, shorelines; only camping, hiking, sport fishing and boating National Wilderness Preservation System -most restricted public lands; mostly open for hiking and sport fishing, camping

13. Types of US Public Lands

14. Managing US Public Land: An ongoing controversy
Protecting biodiversity and ecological function- argument over if this should be the primary goal of public lands
No subsidies or tax breaks for use of resources from public lands- user-pays approach
Public should get fair compensation for any resources extracted from public lands
Users held responsible for actions and any envtl. damage caused
*Follows Leopold’s land-use ethic

15. VIDEO: Public Lands

16. National Parks >1,100 national parks in 120 countries
Only 1% of parks in developing countries are protected (lack of funding/education)
Local people invade parks to survive 16

17. Problems Protecting National Parks
Illegal logging
Illegal mining
Wildlife poaching
Most parks too small to protect large animals
Invasion of nonnative species 17

18. Stresses on U.S. Public Parks
Biggest problem is popularity
Noise
Congestion
Pollution
Damage or destruction to vegetation and wildlife
Damage from nonnative species
Threatened islands of biodiversity
Repairs needed to trails and buildings 18

19. Natural Capital Degradation: Off-road Vehicles
Fig. 8-18, p. 165 19

20. 20

21. Solutions for Protection
Requires action – bottom-up political pressure
Nature Conservancy – world’s largest private system of reserves
Buffer zones around protected areas
Locals to manage reserves and buffer zones 21

22. Designing and Connecting Nature Reserves
Large versus small reserves
The buffer zone concept
United Nations: 529 biosphere reserves in 105 countries
Habitat corridors between isolated reserves
Advantages
Disadvantages 22

23. Model Biosphere Reserve23

24. Florida Wildlife Corridor
champions the public and partner support needed to permanently connect, protect and restore the Florida Wildlife Corridor – a statewide network of lands and waters that supports wildlife and people
trekked 1,000 miles across Florida – twice – to demonstrate the need and opportunity to connect wild places in Florida
Using a science-based approach, on-the-ground knowledge of the Corridor
Goal: accelerate the rate of conservation in Florida by 10% annually in order to protect 300,000 acres within the Corridor by the end of 2020.

25. Case Study: Costa Rica Superpower of biodiversity
1963–1983: cleared much of the forest
1986–2006: forests grew from 26% to 51%
Goal: to reduce net carbon dioxide emissions to zero by 2021
Now has conserved 25% of its land, 8 megareserves
Government eliminated deforestation subsidies ($)
Paid landowners to maintain and restore tree coverage
Goal to make sustainable forestry profitable
2/3 of the billion dollar tourism income comes from eco-tourism! 25

26. Costa Rica’s Megareserve Network
Fig. 8-21, p. 167 26

27. Case Study: Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the U.S.
Wilderness: legally set aside land to protect consisting of areas of “undeveloped land affected primarily by the force of nature, where man is a visitor and does not remain.”; Minimum size >4,000 km2
Preserves natural capital
Centers for evolution
1964 Wilderness Act
Legally defined wilderness and est. restrictions
Protects 106 million acres of federal land
Roadless Rule (2001)- 1/3 of national forests are off limits to roads, logging, development of any kind; protects 400,000 sq. miles
Pressure from oil, gas, mining, and logging 27

28. 11-4: Managing and Sustaining Forests
TYPES OF FORESTS (based on age & structure)
Old-growth (frontier or primary) forests- uncut or not disturbed in several hundred years; lots of biodiversity (36% of world’s forests)
Second-growth forests- secondary succession after being cleared from human activities or natural disasters (60% of world’s forests)
Tree farms/plantation- uniformly aged trees that are harvested by clear-cutting when commercially valuable; replanted and cycles again (4% of world’s forests)
May supply most of the industrial wood in the future

29. Natural Capital: An Old-Growth Forest and an Old-Growth Tropical Forest

30. Managing and Sustaining Forests
Ecological Importance:
Support food webs, energy flow, and nutrient cycling
Protect soils from erosion
Absorb / release water
Influence local and regional climate
Numerous habitats and niches
Air purification and store atmospheric carbon
Economic Importance:
Fuel wood
Lumber
Paper
Livestock grazing
Mineral extraction
Recreation
Employment

31. Estimated Annual Global Economic Values of Ecological Services Provided by Forests
Figure 10.A
Estimated annual global economic values of some ecological services provided by forests compared to the raw materials they produce (in billions of dollars).

32. Forest Management
Even-aged management- trees maintained and grown to always stand around the same age and size (industrial forestry); tree plantation with a desirable species that can be harvested within 6-10 years
Uneven-aged management- trees of various ages/sizes; protects diversity; long-term sustainable production of timber; allows multiple use for timber, recreation, watershed and wildlife protection

34. How trees are managed and harvested
Fig p. 201

35. Figure 10.3
Short (25- to 30-year) rotation cycle of cutting and regrowth of a monoculture tree plantation used in modern industrial forestry. In tropical countries, where trees can grow more rapidly year-round, the rotation cycle can be 6–10 years. Old-growth or second-growth forests are clear-cut to provide land for growing most tree plantations (see photo, right). Question: What are two ways in which this process can degrade an ecosystem?
Fig. 10-3b, p. 216

36. Logging in U.S. National Forests
Advantages:
Provides local jobs
Helps meet country’s timber needs
Cut areas grow back
Keeps lumbar and paper prices down
Promotes economic growth in nearby communities
Disadvantages:
Provides only 3% of timber
Increases environmental damage
Hinders recreation income that can provide more local jobs and income than logging jobs.

37. We Can Reduce the Demand for Harvested Trees
Improve the efficiency of wood use
Use recycled paper products
Make tree-free paper
Use agricultural residues – left overs from wheat, rice, sugar
Kenaf- a woody annual plant that grows quickly; insect proof; nitrogen fixer
Hemp
Kenaf

38. How are trees harvested?
Major tree harvesting methods:
Selective cutting- remove intermediate-mature aged trees singly or in small groups
High-grading - remove only largest and best trees of desirable species; many tropical forests
Shelterwood cutting – removes all mature trees in 2-3 cuttings over a period of time
Seed-tree cutting- cut all trees but leave behind a few evenly distributed seed producing trees to regenerate
Clear-cutting- removes all trees in an area in a single cut
Strip cutting- clear cutting in smaller strips of land; more sustainable than clear-cutting

39. (a) Selective cutting
(c) Strip cutting
Clear stream
(b) Clear-cutting
Muddy stream
Uncut
Cut 1 year ago
Dirt road
Cut 3–10 years ago
Clear stream
Figure 10.6
Major tree harvesting methods. Question: If you were cutting trees in a forest you owned, which method would you choose and why?

40. Figure 10.8
Advantages and disadvantages of clear-cutting forests. Question: Which single advantage and which single disadvantage do you think are the most important? Why? 40

41. Clear-Cut Logging in Washington State, U.S.41

42. Haiti – Dominican Republic BorderDR
Haiti
Haiti DR

43. Haiti vs Dominican Republican
receives more rain and thus supports higher rates of plant growth
has broad valleys, plains and plateaus and much thicker soils
Cibao Valley in the north is one of the richest agricultural areas in the world.
because the Dominican Republic retained much forest cover and began to industrialize
constructed, dams to generate hydroelectric power
program to spare forest use for fuel by instead importing propane and liquefied natural gas
Haiti
drier because of that barrier of high mountains blocking rains from the east
area of flat land good for intensive agriculture is much smaller
more limestone terrain, and the soils are thinner and less fertile and have a lower capacity for recovery
population seven times higher than its neighbor during colonial times — and it still has a somewhat larger population today, about ten million versus 8.8 million

44. Roads Lead to Forest Degradation
Increased erosion and runoff
Habitat fragmentation
Pathways for exotic species
Accessibility to humans

45. Deforestation is a Major Threat to Forest Ecosystems
Increased erosion
Decrease soil fertility
Sediment runoff into waterways
Accelerates flooding
Regional climate change from extensive clearing
Releases CO2 into atmosphere from burning and tree decay
Habitat fragmentation
Loss of biodiversity
Invasion by
Nonnative pests
Disease
Wildlife species 45

46. Solution: Sustainable Forestry

47. Forest Resources and Management in the US
Fire, Insects, and Climate Change Can Threaten Forest Ecosystems
Introduction of foreign diseases and insects
Accidental
Deliberate
Global warming
Rising temperatures
Trees more susceptible to diseases and pests
Drier forests: more fires
More greenhouse gases 47

48. Fire, Insects, and Climate Change Can Threaten Forest Ecosystems
Surface fires
Usually burn leaf litter and undergrowth
May provide food in the form of vegetation that sprouts after fire
Crown fires
Extremely hot: burns whole trees
Kill wildlife
Increase soil erosion 48

49. Surface and Crown fires

50. Solutions: How can we reduce damage due to fires?
Smokey the Bear educational campaign
Prescribed fires – intentionally set to prevent underbrush growth
Allow fires on public lands to burn
Protect structures in fire-prone areas
Thin forests in fire-prone areas – introduction of goats
Healthy Forests Initiative (2003- U.S.)
Pros - timber companies can cut down trees for 10 yrs in natl. forests in return for clearing fire-prone trees and underbrush
Cons- removes a lot of fire-resistant large trees; leaves behind highly flammable smaller trees; loss of habitats 50

51. VIDEO: Forest Fires

52. What Are the Major Threats to Forest Ecosystems?
Concept #1: Forest ecosystems provide ecological services far greater in value than the value of raw materials obtained from forests.
Concept #2: Unsustainable cutting and burning of forests, along with diseases and insects, are the chief threats to forest ecosystems.
Concept #3: Tropical deforestation is a potentially catastrophic problem because of the vital ecological services at risk, the high rate of tropical deforestation, and its growing contribution to global warming. 52

53. Deforestation
Tropical forests- Especially in Central and South Americas, Indonesia, and Africa; Brazil contains 40% of the world’s remaining tropical rain forest
Boreal Forests- Especially in Alaska, Canada, Scandinavia, and Russia
Role of deforestation in species’ extinction- most endangered species, plant for medicinal purposes. 53

54. Natural Capital Degradation: Extreme Tropical Deforestation in Thailand54

55. Satellite Images of Amazon Deforestation between 1975 and 2001
Deforestation of Rondonia, Brazil from 55

56. How to Protect Tropical Forests
Teach settlers to practice small-scale sustainable agriculture
Harvest renewable resources from the forests
Debt-for-nature swaps- protect forest reserves in return for foreign aid or debt relief
Conservation concessions/easements – money for conservation efforts
Gentler logging methods- cutting vines prior to cutting large trees 56

57. 57

58. Protecting Global Biodiversity Hotspots
17 megadiversity countries in tropics and subtropics
Two-thirds of biodiversity
Developing countries economically poor and biodiversity rich
Protect biodiversity hotspots 58

59. Global Hotspots
Fig. 8-22, p. 169 59

60. Biodiversity Hotspots in the U.S.
Fig. 8-23, p. 169 60

61. VIDEO: What is a biodiversity hotspot?

62. Ecological Restoration - process of repairing damage done to an ecosystem by humans
How we can help speed up the process:
Restoration- return the ecosystem to it’s most natural state possible
Rehabilitation- turn a degraded ecosystem back to a functional or useful form, without trying to get it back to its natural state (replanting trees that have been clear-cut to avoid erosion)
Remediation- cleaning up chemical contaminants from a site
Replacement- replacing a degraded ecosystem with a new one (Tree farm to replace a degraded forest)
Creating artificial ecosystems (man-made wetlands) 62

63. Science-based Principles for Restoration
Identify cause of degradation
Stop abuse by reducing factors
Reintroduce species if necessary
Protect area from further degradation 63

64. Case Study: Ecological Restoration of Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica
One of world’s largest ecological restoration projects
Restore a degraded tropical dry forest in Guanacaste NP and reconnect it to adjacent rain forests
Involve 40,000 people in the surrounding area – biocultural restoration
Ecotourism 64

65. Will Restoration Encourage Further Degradation?
About 5% of the earth’s land is preserved from the effects of human activities
Preventing ecosystem damage is cheaper than restoration
Some worry environmental restoration suggests any harm can be undone
Scientists disagree
Restoration badly needed
Altered restored site better than no restoration 65

66. What Can You Do? 66

67. Ecological Conservation - process of preserving, protecting & managing ecosystems67

68. ECOLOGICAL BALANCE IN NATURE
balance between the living beings and also with the non- living environment
human activities have upset the ecological balance in nature

69. CONSERVATION OF FORESTS
diversion of forest lands for other purposes have to be prevented
reckless cutting of forests need to be checked.
Steps have to be taken to stop shifting practice of cultivation.
forest fire is another cause of forest depletion which needs to be controlled effectively.
afforestation has to be taken up effectively

71. Individuals Matter: Wangari Maathai and Kenya’s Green Belt Movement
Established backyard small tree nursery
Organized poor women
Women paid for each surviving seedling planted
Breaks cycle of poverty
Reduces environmental degradation
People walk less distance to get fuelwood
Sparked projects in +30 African countries 71

72. CONSERVATION OF WILDLIFE
forest destruction must be minimized to prevent species extinction
control over ruthless hunting
set up National parks, biosphere reserves and zoological parks to safe guard the lives of wild animals and birds.

73. CONSERVATION OF ECOSYSTEM
Forests are important components of our environment. Rapid destruction of this important resource is a cause of concern.
Afforestation, preventing reckless cutting of trees and making everyone aware of the need to conserve it will help forest conservation.
Nature enjoys ecological balance only if the relative number of species is not disturbed. So, conservation of wildlife is important for the future.
National parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere reserves are established to protect and conserve wildlife.
Conservation of aquatic life would be ensured by removal of industries near water bodies.

74. CREATING AWARENESS
Awareness about ecosystem conservation can be done by posters, competitions about ecosystem conservation, arranging T.V. programmes and websites related to ecosystems.