1. Chapter Three Morphology From Morpheme to Phrase

2. By words the mind is winged.
ARISTOPHANES (450 BCE–388 BCE)
A powerful agent is the right word. Whenever we come upon one of those intensely right words the resulting effect is physical as well as spiritual, and electrically prompt.
MARK TWAIN

3. Morphology
Morpheme

4. 3.1 What is morpheme? 3.1.1.Morpheme and morphology
Morpheme--?P52 the smallest unit of…
E.g. number of morphemes in a word??
transplant prediction
beautification overlook illness
Discover understatement
independence antidisestablishmentarianism
St, sta =stand

5. Anti+dis+e+st+abl+ish+ment+ari+an+ism
反政教分离说

6. Morphology---?
Morphology is a branch of linguistics which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.

7. Just as the formation of sentences is governed by rules, so is the structure of words.
Eg. Simple — simplify quality--qualify
Just — justify identity--identify
Adj. — v.
All these words bear some similarity in their internal structure. They all end with –ify.
A further look will reveal that these words are all verbs that are formed by adding –ify to either an adjective or noun. So we can see that words are not formed at random, rather they are formed according to certain rules.
The aim of morphology is to find out these rules.

8. Two sub-branches of Morphology
P61 Inflection-？Number, person, case
Word formation/lexical--？
Inflectional morphology
(study of inflections)曲折形态学
Derivational morphology (the study of word formation)词汇形态学（派生形态学）
Two sub-branches of Morphology

10. 3.1.2 Types of morphemes 1) Free and bound morphemes
Free morphemes 自由语素

11. Free morphemes are morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.
Eg. Take : help, quick, able, warm
They all can be used by themselves or used in combination with other morphemes as in “helper” “quicken” “disable” “warm-hearted”

12. monomorphemic words
Polymorphemic words
[mɒnəʊmɔ:'fi:mɪk]

13. Judge All monomorphemic words are free morphemes.
Polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes are compounds.

14. Bound morphemes E.g. prediction Pre- dict- -tion
Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.
E.g. prediction
Pre- dict- -tion

15. 2) root , affix and stem
Root-?
Affix?
Stem?

16. 3) inflectional affix and derivational affix
Distinction between them? 54-55

17. Inflectional morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes which manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree and case.
E.g. workers, children; walking, walked; biggest ; John’s
Derivational morpheme: a kind of bound morphemes , added to existing forms to create new words.
There are three kinds according to position: prefix, suffix and infix.
prefix: change meaning dis-; un-; mis-
suffix: change part of speech -ly; -ness; -tion
infix: some languages also have infixes, affix morphemes that are inserted into root or stem morphemes to divide them into two parts.

18. 3.1.3 Morphological change and allomorph?

19. Allomorph
A morpheme is a linguistic abstraction; it is a concept. It needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. Those forms are called morphs.
In morphemic transcription, morphemes in the abstract notion are put between braces like {}
Allomorph: A morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. The variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs.

20. (2) Morphological change?

21. Old English---inflected language 屈折语， similar to modern German

22. third person singular present tense:
-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth
> -(e)s: does, goes, has, finds
second person singular present tense
playest, speakest, hearest
>play, speakm, hear
the campus of the university > the university’s campus

23. Right or wrong China's modernization the Queen of England' crown
Queen's crown of England

24. 3.2 What is a word?
Definition--A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native-speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form.
How do you understand the concept of word?

25. 3.2.1. Identification of “word”??

26. a.  A physical definable unit: a cluster of sound segments or letters between two pauses or blanks.
b. Word both as a general term and a specific term
(it could be the common factor underlying a set of forms; it could also be used to refer to specific items) (compare: lexical item) P57
c.  A grammatical unit
e.g. It is kind of you, Miss Hou.
Every word plays a grammatical part in the sentence.
Its position in the rank scale of language: morpheme—word— word group— clause---clause complex
Between morpheme and word group

27. Characteristics of words
1) Stability---- words are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure.
E.g. chairman,*manchair
2) Relative uninterruptibility— *chair man, *dis#appoint#ment
New items are not to be inserted into a word; pauses are not allowed between the parts of words

28. 3) A minimal free form (Bloomfield)---
--- a unit of language that, all by itself, has a meaning.
----the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete sentence.

29. 4) Arbitrariness
Words are arbitrary signs for concepts (meaning). The sound/meaning relationship in a word is arbitrary.
Arbitrary sound/meaning relationships have to be learned by the child.
5) Systematicness
Once the arbitrary sound/meaning link is established, word formation is systematic.

30. 3.2.2 Classification of words
Discuss:
A.    Variable vs. invariable words
Variable words----words with ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms
E.g. work, works, working, worked/book-books]
[Variability: Latin, Sanskrit>German>English]
Invariable words---words without inflective endings
E.g. through, seldom, when, etc.

32. B.    Grammatical words (function words) vs. lexical words (content words)
---which express grammatical meanings, such as, conj., prep.,article and pron.
---which serve to link different parts of sentences together
Lexical/ Content words
--which have lexical meanings, referring to substance. Action and quality, such as, nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
----which carry the main content of words

33. C.    Closed-class words vs. open-class
Closed- class words----words whose membership is fixed or limited
Open-class words---words whose membership is in principle indefinite or unlimited.

35. D. Word class-----parts of speech?
Classification based on the formal similarities.
Nine word classes in classic grammar:
New categories
Particles--?

36. Particle: infinitive to, negative not, subordinate units in phrasal verbs “get by”, “look back”, etc.
Auxiliary: do, have
Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.

37. Pro-forms: substitutes for other terms.
Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyone
Pro-adjective: Your car is red. So is his.
Pro-verb: He speaks English better than he did.
Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I hope so too.
Pro-locative: He went there.

38. Determiners ?
Quirk et al, 1985:three subclasses

39. Randolph Quirk, Baron Quirk
(born 1920) is a British linguist.
He read English at University College London in , , MA, PhD, D.Lit; was a Commonwealth Fund (now Harkness) Fellow, Yale and Michigan He was Lecturer in English, UCL, ; Reader, University of Durham, ; Professor, ; Professor, UCL, ; Quain Professor, In the early 1960s, Randolph Quirk and colleagues, among them a young David Crystal, conducted an ambitious project now known as the Survey of English Usage. This was a compilation of a large body of English language data (a corpus), comprising around one million words as they were then used in everyday life.

40. The project was to be the foundation of Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech and Svartvik's A Comprehensive Grammar Of The English Language (Longman, 1985), a widely-used reference grammar used around the world. Instead of declaring what was correct grammatical usage, Quirk and his collaborators showed readers that certain percentages of English speakers preferred one usage to another.
He was president of the British Academy from 1985 to 1989 and became a life peer as Baron Quirk, of Bloomsbury in the London Borough of Camden in 1994.

41. Determiner: all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and its modifiers.
As many as three determiners may be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than one.
predeterminers
central determiners
Postdeterminers

42. Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters …; double, twice, three times …; such, what (exclamative)
Central determiners: the; this, these, that, those; PossP; we, us; you; which, what (relative), what (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few, a little
Postdeterminers: every; many, several, few, little; one, two, three …; (a) dozen

43. Order of the determiners
Exclusiveness of the same type within a word group

45. *their all trouble
*five the all boys
*all this boy
*all both girls

46. 3.3. Word formation
Inflectional way P61
Derivational way

47. Two basic types
1. Compoundingp61-- It is a formation of new words of joining two or more stems。
A compound word is a lexical unit consisting more than one stem and functioning both grammatically and semantically 。
Usually the right-hand member serves as the head.
Types of compounds?P64

48. Endocentric & exocentric
Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg
self-control: a kind of control
armchair: a kind of chair
Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg
scarecrow: not a kind of crow
breakneck: not a kind of neck

49. 2. Derivation--It is a very common way to create new words in English
2.Derivation--It is a very common way to create new words in English. It can be viewed as the addition of affix to stem to form new words.
The new words formed by derivation are called derivative.
Roots are the basis of derivation. Prefix and suffix play an important role in derivation.
Prefixation and suffixation belong to derivation

50. Judge:
Through derivation, word class of the original word is changed.
Through inflection, word class of the original word remains unchanged.

51. ① prefix+bound morpheme ② bound morpheme+suffix
There are two types of derivatives. The first type treated free morpheme as centre. The second type treated bound morpheme as centre.
①    prefix+free morpheme
②    free morpheme+suffix
③    prefix+free morpheme+suffix
④    organized form+free morpheme
①    prefix+bound morpheme
②    bound morpheme+suffix
③    prefix+bound morpheme+suffix

52. Other frequent ways to form new words 3.4 Lexical change proper
3)Invention (Neologism)
e.g. nanometer, clone，maglevtrain
software, hardware, internet, , cyber shopping, IBM, Microsoft, etc.
4)Blending
e.g. infortainment, glocalization
新闻娱乐化、 全球本土化
brunch, motel

53. 5）Abbreviation (clipping)?
6) Acronym
(Initialism)
7) Back-formation ?
televise

54. nanometer, clone，maglevtrain modulator+demodulator>modem
dance+exercise>dancercise
advertisement+editorial>advertorial
education+entertainment>edutainment
information+commercial>infomercial
chimp(anzee), deli (catessen), exam (ination), hippo (potamus), reg(ulation)s Taxi(cab)
(ham) burger, (omni) bus, (violin) cello,
(heli) copter, (tele)phone, (in) flu (enza), (de) tec (tive).

55. ASAP: as soon as possible
CD-ROM: compact disc read-only memory
dink(y): double income, no kids
WASP: white Anglo-Saxon protestant

56. diagnose < diagnosis
enthuse < enthusiasm
laze < lazy
statistic < statistics
televise < television
burgle, edit, peddle
babysit, housekeep, sightsee, tape- record

57. Analogical creation From irregular to regular:
work: wrought > worked
beseech: besought > beseeched
slay: slew > slayed?
go: went > goed???

58. 9) Borrowing
E.g. Karaoke (Japanese),
Chinese: Kung fu ，Yin yang ，Kowtow ，Tofu ，Lychee 或 litche， Mahjong或 Mah-jong， Feng shui ,Tai chi

59. French: French: chic (stylish), naive (innocent)，fiancée, fiancé, resumé
administration, parliament, public, revenue, tax; court, crime, defendant, judge, jury, justice, pardon, sue; army, enemy, guard, officer, peace, soldier, war; clergy, faith, prayer, religion, sermon, service; coat, costume, dress, fashion, frock, jewel, lace; boil, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast; bargain, butcher, customer, grocer, money, price, value; art, college, music, poet, prose, story, study

60. Latin: admit, client, conviction, custody, discuss, equal, index, infinite, intellect, library, medicine, minor, opaque, prosecute, pulpit, scribe, scripture, simile, testimony
Greek: acme, bathos, catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasy, kudos, misanthrope, pathos, pylon, therm

61. Spanish and Portuguese: anchovy, armada, banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cannibal, canoe, canyon, cargo, cask, chilli (or chili), chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, desperado, embargo, guitar, mosquito, negro, port (wine), potato, ranch, renegade, sherry, siesta, tango, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanilla

62. Italian: aria, artichoke, bandit, broccoli, cameo, carnival, casino, concerto, duet, finale, ghetto, graffiti (singular graffito), incognito, inferno, influenza, larva, libretto, macaroni, maestro, mafia, malaria, paparazzi (singular paparazzo), piano, pizza, ravioli, regatta, replica, scampi, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, vendetta, vermicelli, volcano

63. Dutch: apartheid, booze, boss, brandy, buoy, coleslaw, commando, cookie, cranberry, cruise, deck, decoy, dock, dollar, dope, easel, excise, freight, furlough, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, onslaught, pickle, reef, sketch, skipper, slim, smuggle, snap, snip, trek, waffle, wagon, yacht

64. Hebrew: amen, babel, cabbala (or cabala, kabbala, kabala), camel, cherub, jubilee, manna, messiah, sabbath, satan, seraph, shibboleth
Arabic: admiral, albatross, alchemy, alcohol, alcove, algebra, alkali, almanac, amber, assassin, candy, cipher (or cypher), harem, hazard, lemon, magazine, nadir, safari, sherbet, sofa, syrup, zenith, zero

65. Indian: bungalow, cashmere, chutney, cot, curry, dinghy, ginger, guru, juggernaut, jungle, jute, loot, mango, pariah, polo, punch, pundit, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, toddy, veranda (or verandah), yoga

66. In Chinese
WTO, GRE, TOEFL, CEO, IT, SOS, APEC, SARS, VIP, TV, VCD, DVD
E.g.北京购房者的地缘因素非常强，在中关村和CBD (central business district)地区的购房者中，本区客源都占半数以上。
　　正计划在CBD买房的某国际品牌的亚洲代理罗拉说：“我向往‘现代城’时髦的SOHO (small office/home office)观念，澳洲设计师的简洁设计，在京城不可取代的地位都是我向往的……”

67. 代沟 (generation gap)、文化差距 (culture gap)、单身母亲 (bachelor mother)、应召女郎 (call girl)、裸体飞跑 (streaking) 、白领阶层”(white collar)、“蓝领阶层”(blue collar)

68. Types of borrowing processes
Loanwords
Loanblend
Loan shift
Loan translation

69. Loanwords借词:
au pair, encore, coup d’etat, kungfu, sputnik
Loanblend混合借词
coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut (English)
Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town (English)
Loanshift转移借词
bridge: meaning as a card game borrowed from Italian ponte

70. Loan translation, 翻译借词
free verse < L verse libre
black humor < Fr humour noir
found object < Fr objet trouvé

71. 10) Conversion
Conversion is formation of new words by converting words of one class to another class. These words are new in grammatical sense. They don’t change in morphological structure, but only in function.
[Other names: identity operation, zero operation, zero derivation]

72. (2) Syntactical change
Syntax: Chaucer (14th): He coude songes make Shakespear: We sing not.
I know not where to hide my head. > I don’t know where to hide my head.

73. Fusion/blending:
equally good + just as good >
equally as good
It’s no use getting there before nine + There’s no use in getting there before nine > There’s no use getting there before nine.

74. 3.3.4 Phonological change 1) Loss of sound:
loss of the velar fricative /x/ which existed in O.E.
loss of sound in fast speech, eg library, laboratory
and > ’n in connected speech, eg rock-’n-roll

75. Addition of sound:
L. studium > O.F. estudie, Sp. estudio, Port. estudo
English: rascal > rapscallion
Metathesis:语音换位
changing the sequence of sound
O.E. brid > bird, O.E. ox/ax > ask
Assimilation:
impossible, immovable
irregular, irresponsible
illogical, illegal

76. 3.3.3.Semantic change Three major kinds of semantic changes ?
Two minor kinds?

77. A.Broadening:
holiday: holy day (religion) > day for rest
bird: young bird > any kind
task: tax > work
B.Narrowing:
meat: food >
girl: young person > young woman
deer: beast > a special kind of animal

78. etymology of words
girl - M.E. gyrle "child" (of either sex), perhaps related to O.E. gierela "garment." Specific meaning of "female child" is 14c. Like boy, lass, lad it is of obscure origin. "Probably most of them arose as jocular transferred uses of words that had originally different meaning." [O.E.D.] Applied to "any unmarried woman" since Girl next door as a type of unflashy attractiveness is first recorded 1961.

79. Judge: broadening or narraowing
wife (woman) ,
pen (feather),
thing (an assembly– a law court---a case in a law court--an action/a saying –everything)，
gay (pleasure)
哭，雌雄，丈人，
哭--出声的哭，丈人，唐以后指岳父 雌雄--鸟的应阴阳区别

80. wife - O. E. wif "woman," from P. Gmc. wiban, of unknown origin
wife - O.E. wif "woman," from P.Gmc. *wiban, of unknown origin. The modern sense of "female spouse" began as a specialized sense in O.E.; the general sense of "woman" is preserved in midwife, old wive's tale, etc. M.E. sense of "mistress of a household" survives in housewife; and that of "tradeswoman of humble rank" in fishwife. Du. wijf now means, in slang, "girl, babe," having softened somewhat from earlier sense of "bitch."

81. gay , from O.Fr. gai "gay, merry," perhaps from Frank. (cf. O.H.G. gahi "sudden, impulsive"). Slang for "homosexual" is 1951, apparently shortened from gey cat "homosexual boy," c.1935 in a dictionary of "Underworld & Prison Slang;" used as far back as 1893 in Amer.Eng. for "young hobo," one who is new on the road and usually in the company of an older tramp,

82. C. meaning shift
1)basic sense
silly (happy)—naïve—foolish, nice(ignorant), minister (servant), fond=foolish, etc.
喽罗：原来指能干的人，现在指坏人的仆从。
乖：原来指违背、不和谐，现在则指小孩听话、顺从。

83. 2) color of the words
vulgar (common), success (outcome), governor (pilot) nimble [good at taking away sth stealthily [quick-moving; (mind) sharp], shrewd
(evil—showing sound judgment and common sense )
爪牙：原来指辅佐国家的武将，现在指坏人的打手、帮凶。

84. 3) special nounscommon nouns
Champagne ([ſaem’pein] 法国的一个地名，因生产葡萄酒而闻名)
Rugby（英国的一所学校所在地，该校盛行橄榄球运动）
Xerox[ziə ‘roks](施乐复印机（商标名称);制成世界第一台复印机的公司的名称）
Sandwich （英国地名，意为沙土镇，相传此真有一位伯爵酷爱下棋…两片面包夹一片火腿肠的简便食品)

85. meticulous:恐惧的---谨小慎微的 lust--pleasure-sexual desire “涕”原来指眼泪，现在转为指鼻涕。
4) meaning shift ---
bead
meticulous:恐惧的---谨小慎微的
lust--pleasure-sexual desire
“涕”原来指眼泪，现在转为指鼻涕。
“兵”原来指兵器，现在指军人、军队。
闻：原指耳听，现指用鼻子分辨气味。
斤：古指“斧子”，“运斤成风”，现用作量词。

86. D. class shift P80
E. Fake etymology: a kind of folk etymology
Manhattan: man with hat on
MBA: married but available
PhD: perhaps have divorced
golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Forbidden

87. 3.3.5 orthographical change
Change of spelling:
Iesus > Jesus
sate > sat
Sunne > Sun

88. 3.2.4 Sememe vs. morpheme; phoneme Vs morpheme
(1) sememe vs phoneme
Sememe—
Five mapping and non-mapping occasions

90. Riddles 1What is the best thing to keep in hot weather?
2. What is never used until it's broken?
3. What is dark but made by light? .
4. What can you break with only one word?
5. Which can move faster, heat or cold?

91. 1What is the best thing to keep in hot weather?
Cool!
2. What is never used until it's broken?
An egg.
3. What is dark but made by light?
A shadow.
4. What can you break with only one word?
Silence.
5. Which can move faster, heat or cold?
Heat, because you can catch cold easily.

92. 6. What has cities with no houses, rivers without water and forests without trees?
7. What can be measured but has no length, width or thickness?
8. When can you have an empty pocket and still have something in it?
9. How many great men have been born in London?
10. Who may marry many a wife and stay single all of his life?

93. 6. What has cities with no houses, rivers without water and forests without trees?
A map.
7. What can be measured but has no length, width or thickness?
The temperature.
8. When can you have an empty pocket and still have something in it?
When you have a hole in your pocket.
9. How many great men have been born in London?
None. Only babies.
10. Who may marry many a wife and stay single all of his life?
A priest.(牧师)