1. Cross-Cultural Differences: How do cultures vary?
Lecture 3

2. Sophisticated Stereotypes about Cross-Cultural Differences: Cultural Dimensions
Values
Assumptions
Beliefs
Norms
Practices
Cognitive processes

3. Cultural Dimensions Values
Hofstede (1980): Individualism-collectivism; Power distance; Uncertainty Avoidance; Masculinity-Femininity + Confucian Dynamism
Trompenaars (1993): Individualism-collectivism; past-present- future orientation; emotionality-emotional neutrality; universalism-particularism; specificity-diffuseness; ascribed- achieved status.
Schwartz (1994): Hierarchy; Conservatism; Autonomy; Mastery; Harmony; Equality.
Triandis (1996): Vertical-Horizontal Individualism-Collectivism.
The GLOBE Project (House et al., 2005): In-group collectivism (family, institutional); power distance; uncertainty avoidance; gender egalitarianism; future orientation; performance orientation; humanism; assertiveness.
The Model of Culture Fit (Aycan et al., 2000): Loyalty toward community; paternalism; fatalism; power distance.

4. Assumptions Practices Norms
Maznevski & DiStefano (2002): Mastery-harmony; individual- collective-colleteral; human nature evil-good; past-present- future orientation; doing-being.
Model of culture Fit (Aycan et al. 2000): Malleability; proactivity; obligation; participation; responsibility seeking.
Practices
Smith, Peterson, Schwartz (2002): Event management – supervisor; unwritten sources; experts; colleagues; (religious) beliefs; self.
House, et al., GLOBE Projesi (1999): In-group collectivism (family, institutional); power distance; uncertainty avoidance; gender egalitarianism; future orientation; performance orientation; humanism; assertiveness.
Norms
Gelfand et al. (in preparation) – Cultural tightness-loseness.

5. Belief systems Cognitive processes
Leung, Bond, vd., 2002 – Social axioms: Cynicism, social chaos, spirituality; fate control.
Cognitive processes
Hall (1960): High-low context.
Glenn (1981), Sinha ve Kanungo (1997): Associative– abstractive thinking
Witkin, Dyk, vd. (1962): Context dependence- independence.

6. (Hofstede, 1980)

7. UNCERTAINTY AVOIDANCE
MASCULINITY

8. Beyond sophisticated stereotypes…
According to Hofstede’s findings, German/Russian/Turkish/Portugese/
Dutch culture is high/low/medium in Individualism and high/low/medium in power distance.
Do all people in this country exhibit this value?
Do people in this country exhibit this value in all circumstances?
Under what circumstances would they not exhibit this value and why?

9. Beyond sophisticated stereotypes: Cultural sensemaking
Sophisticated stereotypes should be the beginning of cultural learning, not the end… (Mixing Hercules with Buddha)
Learning another culture occurs in a dialectic fashion: thesis, antithesis, synthesis
Thesis: hypothesis involving a sophisticated stereotype.
Antithesis: identification of an apparently oppositional cultural paradox.
Synthesis: making sense of contradictory, understand why certain values are more important in certain contexts.

10. Sophisticated Streotypes
Sterotypes
Sophisticated Streotypes
Scientific guess
Created based on values, beliefs and assumptions
Ecological fallacy is less because of the large sample size
A system to compare w/ some scales
Standardized
Superficial, for personal uses, useful
Relatively more objective
Created by asking locals ( through surveys)!! But you create questions
Emphasize both similarities and differences
Information comes from within culture
even though they are sophisticated they are still stereotypes
Guess
Anecdotal impression
More ecological fallacy
Based on general characteristics
Judgmental feelings
Emphasize differences
Created by a foreigner (or outsider)

11. GLOBE PROJECT findings
In-group & Family Collectivism:
The degree to which individuals express loyalty, cohesiveness in their families.

12. Organizational Collectivism:
The degree to which organizational practices encourage and reward collective distribution of resources and collective action.

13. Power Distance:
The degree to which members of an organization or society expect and agree that power should be shared unequally.

14. Uncertainty Avoidance
The degree to which individuals rely on social norms, rules and policies to alleviate unpredictability of future events.

15. Performance Orientation
The degree to which a collective encourages and rewards members for performance improvement and excellence.

16. Future Orientation
The extent to which individuals engage in future-oriented behaviors such as delaying gratification, planning and investing in future.

17. Assertiveness:
The degree to which individuals are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in their relationship with others.

18. Humane Orientation:
The degree to which there is encouragement and rewards for being fair, altruistic, generous, caring and kind to others.

19. Gender egalitarianism:
The degree to which gender inequalities are minimized.

20. Maintain Good Interpersonal Relationships & In-group Harmony
Cross-Cultural Variations (Aycan, 2006)
Maintain Good Interpersonal
Relationships & In-group Harmony
Improve Performance
1. Individualism vs. Collectivism
Collectivism Individualism
2. Performance-orientation
Low High
3. Attitudes towards work
Work to live Live to work
4. Attitudes towards rules
Particularism Universalism

21. 5. Nature of work relationships Emotional Contractual
6. Attitudes towards criticisms
Negative Positive
7. Communication style
Indirect, subtle Direct, assertive
(high context) (low context)
8. Problem-solving approach
Avoidance Third-party involvement Confrontation

22. Promote egalitarianism Maintain Status Hierarchy
& participation
Maintain Status Hierarchy
1. Societal & Organizational Structure (Power Distance)
Hierarchical Egalitarian
2. Decision making process
Centralized Consultative Participative
3. Attitudes towards rules
Particularism Universalism
4. Status is driven from
Ascription Achievement

23. Inflexibility; lack of belief in change & development
Flexibility; belief in
change & development
1. Fatalism
High Low
2. Planning
Past-oriented Present-oriented Future-oriented
(short-term) (long-term)
3. Attitudes towards change
Negative Neutral Positive
4. Perception of human nature
Evil & stable Good & malleable

24. Cross-Cultural Research & Data Analysis
Be careful:
Equivalences
Score aggregation

25. Equaivalences in Cross-Cultural Research
Equivalences
Sample equivalence
Linguistic equivalence
Conceptual (structural) equivalences
Metric equivalence
Response style equivalence (e.g., language of questions influences the answers; culture influences the response style; inflation or modesty effect; no response)

26. Levels of Analysis
Pancultural analysis: Analysis that is done using all the subjects in the study (e.g., 10 countries 100 participants in each; N = 1000).
Country level analysis: Analysis that is conducted in each country separately.
Ecological level analysis: Analysis based on the aggregate score of countries (e.g., 10 countries, 100 participants in each; N=10).
Individual level analysis: Analysis based on standardized scores of participants using the country scores that they belong to.

27. Score aggregation ICC: Intraclass correlations
rwg: Within group correlation
3. WABA (within-between analysis)

28. ICC http://www.john-uebersax.com/stat/icc.htm
The Intraclass Correlation (ICC) assesses rating reliability by comparing the variability of different ratings of the same subject to the total variation across all ratings and all subjects.
where s 2(w) is the pooled variance within subjects, and s 2(b) is the variance of the trait between subjects.
ICC is the proportion of total variance accounted for by within-subject variation.
s 2(b)
ICC    =     
s 2(b) + s 2 (w)

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