1. Methods in Psychology Compiled by-
Dr. Saroj Sharma Nagpal ,Associate professor
Dept. of Psychology, P.G Govt. College, Sector-11, Chandigarh.

2. What is a method ?
In a systematic way, the term method is used to describe a system of procedures in order to lead to the desired outcome.
Every science employs methods, which are peculiar to its subject matter. Psychologists utilize a wide variety of methods in acquiring knowledge about behaviour.

3. INTROSPECTION most important methods of psychology.
made up of two latin words ‘intro’ which means ‘within’/ ‘inward’ and ‘spiere’, which means ‘to look’.
Therefore, introspection means to look within.
oldest known method employed for the study of behaviour.
It is a subjective method as it involves self examination, which cannot be measured.
initiated and started by the (School of structuralism), Wilhelm Wundt used the method of introspection to study Consciousness.
MERITS OF INTROSPECTION
simple and readily available
It gives us a direct and immediate insight into one’s own mental processes without involving any extra expenditure or apparatus.

4.  individual’s introspective report cannot be generalized.
DEMERITS OF INTROSPECTION
 unscientific as personal biases may creep in while reporting about the event or experience.
 It is not authentic because there is no proof of what ever is reported, its true and factual.
 individual’s introspective report cannot be generalized.
 difficult method as the state of one’s mental processes is constantly changing and to experience/feel and observe/report about the event, at the same time is difficult.
 Results lack reliability and repeatability.
 Its scope is limited, as the behavior of children, abnormal beings and animals cannot be studied through this method.

5. OBSERVATION METHOD
refers to watching and listening to the behaviour of other persons, over time, without manipulating and controlling it, and record the findings for interpretations.
non-experimental in design, where no manipulation of Independent Variables is done.
it involves observation of behavior of others, their bodily activities, their facial expressions, gestures, body language etc.
there is natural social context in which person’s behavior is studied.
Through observation, one tries to obtain QUALITATIVE as well as QUANTITATIVE data.

6. Generalization and interpretation
Steps of Observation
To record behavior
To note down behavior
To analyze behavior
Generalization and interpretation

7. Characteristics of Good Observation:
 It should be specific
 It should be systematic and planned
 It should be scientific and reliable
 It should be qualitative

8. On the basis of nature:-
TYPES OF OBSERVATION
There are several ways of classifying observation.
On the basis of nature:-
Naturalistic Observation
Experimental Observation
On the basis of the usefulness of data:-
Systematic Observation
Unsystematic observation

9. On the basis of role played by the investigator
Participant observation
Disguised or Covert participant observation.
Undisguised or Overt participant observation.
Non participant Observation

10. MERITS OF OBSERVATION It is economical, natural as well as flexible.
It provides real life , ecologically valid information.
In a few situations it is the only ethical method to use.
It checks socially desirable responses.
It is scientific and objective, if properly planned.
It is reliable and valid.
Behavior of children, abnormal beings and animals can also be studied.

11. DEMERITS OF OBSERVATION
Difficult to know what is happening in the minds of others, only external behavior can be observed.
It lacks repeatability because each natural situation can occur only once.
Inability to establish a proper cause and effect relationship.
Subjectivity factors on the part of the investigator also effects the results, as his interests, values and prejudices may also distort the contents of observation.
Observer’s Bias
Reactivity

12. SURVEY RESEARCH METHOD
Technique whereby the researcher studies the whole population with respect to certain sociological and psychological variables.
asks a representative sample of people oral or written questions to find out about their attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, opinions and values.
convenient random sample ,also called a Sample Survey
researchers use preset questions (questionnaires/interviews) to gather information
used to obtain information on political opinions, consumer preferences, health care needs and many other things.
often repeated over long periods of time in order to track shifts in public opinions or actual behavior.
gathers quantifiable data on behaviors and helps us test the hypothesis

13. The survey can be
Structured or Unstructured.
A good survey design should have a clear purpose & standardized questions
Principles of Survey Design
Keep the language simple.
Keep questions short and on one issue.
Avoid technical terms.
Avoid leading questions.
Avoid emotional or moral questions.
The Should-Would questions should be avoided.

14. TYPES OF SURVEY RESEARCH:
PERSONAL INTERVIEW
direct conversation between the interviewer and the respondent is held with a view to elicit some information form the respondent
series of open-ended questions
The respondent’s responses are recorded on tape or written down
Necessary conditions -
Accessibility
Cognition
Motivation
Two main disadvantages of personal interview:-
 Higher cost
 Interviewer bias

15. MAIL QUESTIONNAIRE
most common type of survey method used in educational and sociological researches.
Consists of self-administered questionnaires, having several items designed to elicit the required information.
a widely scattered population can be surveyed rapidly
personal bias and influence not involved, which tend to lower reliability and validity of the survey
They are the best for dealing with highly personal or embarrassing topics, especially when anonymity of respondents is required.

16. Advantages of mail Questionnaire
 Less costly
 It is done relatively quickly
Disadvantages of Mail Questionnaire
non-response from the respondent
ineffective technique of survey where the objective and purpose of the survey needs sufficient explanation
Inflexible technique as there’s no way to check the validity of the answers
When spontaneous answers are needed, mail questionnaire are not considered to be appropriate
the surveyor has no means by which he can be sure that the right person has answered the questions.
the researcher cannot observe the mode of expression of the respondent

17. PANEL TECHNIQUE
It is a type of technique which requires successive interviews with the same sample i.e. Re-interview is designed and the same sample is interviewed more than once.
Advantages
 It enables the investigator to know how the various factors bring changes through time in the attitudes of the sample being studied.
 It becomes more sensitive and accurate when the sample is re- interviewed.
Limitations
 There occurs a loss of the sample being studied, which may occur due to death, refusal to be re-interviewed and moving from one place to another.
 Re-interviewing sometimes tends to sensitize the sample to the extent that the individuals refuse to give the desired response.

18. TELEPHONE SURVEY: It is a rare form of survey research.
In this survey, the respondent is interviewed by the investigator on telephone.
Advantage
 Quick and speedy in collecting information.
Disadvantage
 When the investigator is not known to the respondents, they usually do not co-operate and answer only simple and straight forward questions.
 Secondly, in a country like India it has one more added disadvantage- only limited population has telephone facilities and so not all respondents can be contacted on telephone.

19. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
is a research method in which the investigator manipulates a variable (A) known as Independent Variable, whereby controlling the other variables, known as Control Variables, and observing the effects of independent Variable, upon the second variable known as the dependent variable (B)
Effect of I.V. upon D.V.
Eg: Teaching method  Independent Variable
Achievement in the class  Dependent Variable
Variables are the characteristics or conditions that are manipulated, controlled or observed by the experimenter.
A variable is anything that can vary in its quantity or quality.
Eg: Intelligence, anxiety, aptitude, income etc.

20. Types of Experiments Lab Experiment Field Experiment Quasi Experiment
Three types of variables in an experiment are
Independent Variables
Dependent Variable
Control Variables
INDEPENDENT VARIABLE IS MANIPULATED
DEPENDENT VARIABLE IS OBSERVED
CONTROL/ RELEVANT VARIABLE IS HELD CONSTANT
Types of Experiments
Lab Experiment
Field Experiment
Quasi Experiment

21. STEPS OF EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
1. PROBLEM
A problem may be defined as an interrogative testable statement which expresses the relationship between two or more than two variables
2. HYPOTHESIS
Hypothesis may be defined as a suggested testable answer to a problem, which is stated in a declarative form/sentence, about the relationship between two or more variables.
Problem: What is the relationship between IQ and class room achievements?
Hypothesis : IQ is positively related with the class-room achievement.
Types of hypothesis
Directional Hypothesis
Positive hypothesis
Negative hypothesis
Non- Directional Hypothesis or Two-tailed hypothesis
Null hypothesis

22. 3. DESIGN OF THE EXPERIMENT
It is a preplan of the investigation. The study of structure and planning experiments is a filed of investigation commonly called the design of the experiment, through which we can answer research question.
4. TO MANIPULATE AND DISTINGUISH VARIABLES
5. CONTROL: The attempt to produce a phenomenon in a pure condition by regulating its environment is called controlling an experiment.
The main aim of control of an experiment is to ensure that the influence of all relevant variables is same for all the subjects and does not change during the experiment
6. REPORTING AND ANALYZING DATA
After the conduct of an experiment, data are presented in tables or figures/graphs. The DV is plotted on the ordinate the vertical scale (Y-axis) and the I.V is graphed on the Abscissa – the horizontal scale (x-axis).

23. Two ways to control an experiment: Control Group Method
The experimental group
Control group
E.g.: Effect of practice on achievement.
Experimental Group: Practice - Achievement Score.
Control Group : No Practice - Achievement Score.
Control Test Method
Control condition
Experimental condition
This method is called the Test – Retest Method.
Effect of Practice on achievement.
Pre-I.V. Achievement Score – Practice – Post I.V. Achievement Score.

24. Advantages of Experimental Method
uses scientific method
based on facts
data obtained can be generalized
Results of experimental method are valid and reliable can be repeated.
It involves objectivity
uses Control
explains cause and effect relationship
method is standardized, replicable and generalizable
can predict human behavior
has wide applications
Disadvantages of Experimental Method
It is artificial. The experiment may lack ecological validity and lack of generalisability.
It is unethical to over control

25. SAMPLING METHOD
Draw some inferences regarding a well-specified and identifiable group on the basis of some selected measures. The well-specified and identifiable group is known as population or universe and the selected number of persons or objects is known as a sample
Eg: All primary school teachers, all college teachers, all university students, all housewives etc.
A sample may be defined as any number of persons selected to represent the population according to some rule/plan. Thus, a sample is a smaller representation of the population.
Most Sampling Methods can be categorized into two types
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD

26. PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD
Probability sampling methods are those that clearly specify the probability or likelihood of inclusion of each element or individual in the sample.
The probability sampling method must satisfy the conditions given below:-
The size of the parent population or universe from which the sample is to be taken must be known to the investigator.
Each element or individual in the population must have an equal chance of being included in the sample.
The desired sample size must be clearly specified

27. Types of probability sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sample
Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling
Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling
Area or Cluster Sampling

28. Non Probability Sampling Methods
It is the one in which there is no way of assessing the probability of the element or group of elements, of population being included in the sample.
Important techniques of non-probability sampling methods are-
Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Accidental Sampling
Systematic Sampling
Snowball Sampling
Saturation/Dense Sampling

29. Requisites of Good Sampling Method
Any sampling method to be good and scientific must possess at least two properties:
1) It must be representative of the population
2) It must ensure the adequacy of the sample. A sample is said to be adequate when it is of sufficient size.
A sample is generally preferred to be large/adequate because it tends to reduce the error (which is the difference between the population value ad the sample value).

30. Advantages of Sampling Method
1) Accuracy is increased
2) Cost is reduced
3) Speed is increased
One disadvantage is the Sampling Error, which can occur whenever the results obtained on the basis of a limited number of individuals is applied a larger population.

31. Some Important errors in research
The placebo effects occur when subjects’ expectations lead them to experience some change even though they receive empty, fake or ineffectual treatment.
Social desirability bias is a tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.
A response set is a tendency to respond to questions in a particular way that are unrelated to the content of the questions.
Demand characteristics are any cues in a study that suggest to subjects the purpose of the study or what the researcher hopes to find. These cues ‘demand’ a certain response.
Experimenter bias occurs when a researcher’s expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained. It is called the self-fulfilling prophecy.
The double blind procedure is a research strategy in which neither subjects nor experimenters know which subjects are in the experimental or control group.