1. Methods to Control Extraneous Variables
Content Covered
Placebo effects
Experimenter effects
Experiment designs
Statistics
Inferential statistics
Ethical considerations in psychological research

2. Study Design Content
order effects, experimenter effect, placebo effects; ways of minimising confounding and extraneous variables including type of experiment, counterbalancing, single and double blind procedures, placebos; evaluation of different types of experimental research designs including independent-groups, matched-participants, repeated-measures; reporting conventions
statistics: measures of central tendency including mean, median and mode; interpretation of p- values and conclusions; reliability including internal consistency; validity including construct and external; evaluation of research in terms of generalising the findings to the population

3. Study Design Content
• ethical principles and professional conduct: the role of the experimenter; protection and security of participants’ rights; confidentiality; voluntary participation; withdrawal rights; informed consent procedures; use of deception in research; debriefing; use of animals in research; role of ethics committees.

4. Placebo Effects
In psychological research a placebo effect may occur when a participants response (the DV) is influenced not be the IV, but rather than by the expectancy of the participant of how they are expected to behave
For example…
If a study was examining a new drug and we had an experimental group who was receiving the drug in a tablet and a control group who was not, the participants who know they are receiving the treatment may have effects based upon their expectancy of what they think should happen
Box 6 – The Hawthorne Effect, pg. 21

5. Placebo Effects To counter this the experimenter may use a placebo
A placebo is a fake treatment which is used to reduce participant expectancy in a treatment. It could be in the form of a sugar pill so that both the experimental and control groups are unsure as to what group they are in
This is known as a single-blind procedure

6. Experimenter Effects
Even though we may have minimised participant effects via single-blind procedure, there still could exist experimenter bias
Experimenter bias is where the experimenter may have expectancy about the results based upon the treatment

7. Experimenter Effects
To overcome this extraneous variable, a double- blind procedure may be used
A double blind procedure is where neither the participants nor the researcher conducting the experiment, knows which participants are in experimental or control group
A third person is used to oversee the placement of the participants into the groups
Learning Activity 7 – Review Questions, pg. 23

8. Experimental Design
The experimental design is another way to minimise the effects of extraneous variables
There are three main experimental designs we can use in psychological research
They are Repeated measures, Matched participants and Independent Groups

9. Repeated-Measures
In a repeated- measures design, one group of participants undertakes both experimental conditions (the experimental condition and the control condition)
Fig 1.18 pg. 28

10. Repeated-Measures Advantages
Subject variables are kept highly controlled as they are consistent between conditions
Fewer participants are required
Disadvantages
Repetition effects may occur – participants may become bored or fatigued after the first condition
The practice effect could make the results invalid – participants may learn how to improve in the second condition from the first condition they undertake

11. Counterbalancing
To overcome the effects of repetition, the experimenter may use counterbalancing
Counterbalancing involves placing half the participants in the experimental group and half in the control group first, thereby balancing the effects of the order

12. Matched-Participants
A matched-participants design involves placing equivalent pairs of participants into each group
Participants in each condition are paired according to any important variables, which if left uncontrolled, may confound the results – could include gender, age, intelligence
Fig 1.19 pg. 29

13. Matched-Participants
Advantages
Eliminates order effects such as fatigue as the participants only undertake one condition
Disadvantages
Although it attempts to keep subject characteristics constant, participants can never be perfectly matched
The process of matching participants is time- consuming
If one participant leaves the experiment the matched participant in the other group must have their results exluded

14. Independent-Groups Design
The independent- groups design using random allocation to assign participants to one of the control or experimental group
Each participant only undertakes the condition they are assigned to – either the control or experimental group
Fig 1.20 pg. 30

15. Independent-Groups Design
Advantages
Easier to select participants
Also eliminates order effects such as fatigue
Disadvantages
Subject variables could occur despite random allocation
Participants only undertake one condition
The least effective in minimising extraneous variables

16. Experimental Design Copy Figures 1.18, 1.19, and 1.20 into your notes
Activity 9 – Research Methods, Minimising extraneous variables

17. Statistics
Quantitative statistics take the form of numerical values such as the weight of a participant
Qualitative statistics are factual descriptions about the characteristics of a subjects behaviour and is usually in the form of words

18. Statistics There are three measures of central tendency
The mean – the average of a set of scores, the most sensitive measure of central tendency but can be distorted by extreme high or low values
The median – the middle number in a set of scores
The mode – the most commonly occurring number

19. Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics are formal data analyses that measure the likelihood of results obtained for a study occurring by chance
Measures of statistical significance indicate whether or not the results obtained in an experiment are due to chance, rather than the manipulation of the IV
Significance refers to the results being important, if the results are significant then they important in terms of supporting the hypothesis

20. p-value
The p-value is an inferential statistic used to represent the probability level for deciding whether chance factors are responsible for the results obtained
If the results are obtained by chance then our hypothesis cannot be supported

21. p-value
A significant result is where it has been determined there is a low probability that the results of a research study were due to chance
A p-value of p<0.05 occurs when there is probability of chance occurring 5 or fewer times in 100 repetitions of the research
In psychology a p<0.05 is accepted to mean that the results are statistically significant and are not due to chance, but rather due to the influence of the IV
We can also say that the hypothesis is supported if p<0.05

22. p-value
p-values with stricter conditions are also used when the researcher wants to be really sure of their results (a final drug trial before human subjects are used perhaps?)
For example p<0.01(chance less than 1 in 100) or p<0.001(chance less than 1 in 1000)
Learning Activity 15 – Review Questions

23. Conclusions and Generalisations
A conclusion is a decision or judgement made about the results from an investigation may mean
A generalisation is a decision or judgement made about how the results could be applied to other members of the population which is being studied

24. Ethical Considerations in Psychological Research
The term ethics refers to standards that guide individuals to acceptable or desirable conduct
Ethics are present in many different fields and organisations (Schools, law etc.)
The “National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Research involving Humans” is a code of ethics which provides guidelines which must be followed when working with people in research situations and all other areas of professional practice

25. Participants’ Rights Confidentiality Voluntary Participation
Informed Consent Procedures
Withdrawal Rights
Deception in Research
Debriefing

26. Confidentiality
Refers to a participants right to privacy, so that details of their involvement in the study cannot be revealed in a manner which enables individuals to be identified, unless written consent in obtained
This can refer to access of data from the research as well as storage and disposal of research data

27. Voluntary Participation
The researcher must ensure that a participants participation in a research study is entirely voluntary and that no pressure is placed on them to take part

28. Informed Consent Procedures
Where possible participants must be informed of the nature and purpose of the research
This informed consent needs to be documented and is usually done in the form of a consent form

29. Informed Consent Procedures
Where research may involve participants in situations of physical or mental stress, the researcher must inform them of the procedures to be used and the effects that can be expected
If research involves participants in high levels of emotional arousal, the researcher must ensure no psychologically vulnerable person participates
Where an individual is unable to give informed consent (such as a child or intellectually disabled individual) the researcher must obtain appropriate consent from those legally responsible for the individual

30. Withdrawal Rights
The researcher must inform the participant that they are free to participate or decline to participate or withdraw at any time
The participant must be free to withdraw from the research at any time, without giving a reason

31. Deception in Research
Sometimes, giving a participant too much information about a study may influence their behaviour during the study, therefore influencing the results
When it is necessary to conduct a study without fully informing the participants of its true purpose prior to the study, the researcher must ensure that participants do not suffer distress and are fully debriefed at the end of the study

32. Debriefing
It is important that the researcher debriefs the participant in regards to the research and results following the conclusion of the research
Learning Activity 19 – Identifying ethical issues, pg.54