1. Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology
Chapter 1
Introduction to Human Anatomy and Physiology

2. Introduction:
The early students of anatomy and physiology were most likely concerned with treating illnesses and injuries.
Early healers relied on superstitions and magic. Later, herbs were used to treat certain ailments.
Humors: red, yellow, white, black
Blood Letting (GW)
Trepanning – LINK
Body Snatching
Eventually, after much controversy the study of medicine with standardized terms in Greek and Latin began. (improved techniques/experiments)
*Humorism, or humoralism, is a now discredited (but historically important) theory of the makeup and workings of the human body, adopted by Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers, positing that an excess or deficiency of any of four distinct bodily fluids in a person directly influences their temperament and health. From Hippocrates onward, the humoral theory was adopted by Greek, Roman and Islamic physicians, and became the most commonly held view of the human body among European physicians until the advent of modern medical research in the nineteenth century. Essentially, this theory holds that the human body was filled with four basic substances, called humors, which are in balance when a person is healthy. All diseases and disabilities supposedly resulted from an excess or deficit of one of these four humors. These deficits could be caused by vapors that were inhaled or absorbed by the body. The four humors were black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. Greeks and Romans, and the later Muslim and Western European medical establishments that adopted and adapted classical medical philosophy, believed that each of these humors would wax and wane in the body, depending on diet and activity. When a patient was suffering from a surplus or imbalance of one fluid, then his or her personality and physical health would be affected. This theory was closely related to the theory of the four elements: earth, fire, water and air; earth predominantly present in the black bile, fire in the yellow bile, water in the phlegm, and all four elements present in the blood.
Paired qualities were associated with each humor and its season. The four humors of Hippocratic medicine are black bile (Gk. melan chole), yellow bile (Gk. chole), phlegm (Gk. phlegma), and blood (Gk. haima), and each corresponds to one of the traditional four temperaments.
Blood Letting - Bloodletting (or blood-letting) is the withdrawal of often small quantities of blood from a patient to cure or prevent illness and disease. Bloodletting was based on an ancient system of medicine in which blood and other bodily fluid were regarded as "humors" that had to remain in proper balance to maintain health. It was the most common medical practice performed by physicians from antiquity until the late 19th century, a span of almost 2,000 years.[1] The practice has now been abandoned for all except a few very specific conditions.[2] It is conceivable that historically, in the absence of other treatments for hypertension, bloodletting could sometimes have had a beneficial effect in temporarily reducing blood pressure by reducing blood volume.[3] However, since hypertension is very often asymptomatic and thus undiagnosable without modern methods, this effect was unintentional. In the overwhelming majority of cases, the historical use of bloodletting was harmful to patients.
* Trepanning - Trepanning, also known as trephination, trephining or making a burr hole, is a surgical intervention in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the human skull, exposing the dura mater to treat health problems related to intracranial diseases. It may also refer to any "burr" hole created through other body surfaces, including nail beds. It is often used to relieve pressure beneath a surface. A trephine is an instrument used for cutting out a round piece of skull bone.
Evidence of trepanation has been found in prehistoric human remains from Neolithic times onward. Cave paintings indicate that people believed the practice would cure epileptic seizures, migraines, and mental disorders.[1] The bone that was trepanned was kept by the prehistoric people and may have been worn as a charm to keep evil spirits away. Evidence also suggests that trepanation was primitive emergency surgery after head wounds[2] to remove shattered bits of bone from a fractured skull and clean out the blood that often pools under the skull after a blow to the head. Such injuries were typical for primitive weaponry such as slings and war clubs
*Body Snatching -Body snatching is the secret disinterment of corpses from graveyards. A common purpose of body snatching, especially in the 19th century, was to sell the corpses for dissection or anatomy lectures in medical schools. Those who practised body snatching were often called "resurrectionists" or "resurrection-men."[1] A related act is grave robbery, uncovering a tomb or crypt to steal artifacts or personal effects rather than corpses.
Before the Anatomy Act of 1832, the only legal supply of corpses for anatomical purposes in the UK were those condemned to death and dissection by the courts. Those who were sentenced to dissection by the courts were often guilty of comparatively harsher crimes. Such sentences did not provide enough subjects for the medical schools and private anatomical schools (which did not require a licence before 1832). While during the 18th century hundreds had been executed for trivial crimes, by the 19th century only about 55 people were being sentenced to capital punishment each year. However, with the expansion of the medical schools, as many as 500 cadavers were needed.[2]
Before electric power to supply refrigeration, bodies would decay rapidly and become unusable for study. Therefore, the medical profession turned to body snatching to supply the deficit of bodies fresh enough to be examined.[citation needed]
Stealing a corpse was only a misdemeanour at common law, not a felony, and was therefore only punishable with fine and imprisonment, rather than transportation or execution.[3] The trade was a sufficiently lucrative business to run the risk of detection, particularly as the authorities tended to ignore what they considered a necessary evil
Body snatching became so prevalent that it was not unusual for relatives and friends of someone who had just died to watch over the body until burial, and then to keep watch over the grave after burial, to stop it being violated. Iron coffins, too, were used frequently, or the graves were protected by a framework of iron bars called mortsafes, well-preserved examples of which may still be seen in Greyfriars churchyard, Edinburgh.
Visitors to the older Edinburgh graveyards must have noted their strange resemblance to zoological gardens, the rows of iron cages suggesting rather the dens of wild animals than the quiet resting-places of the dead.
—Roughead [5]
One method the body snatchers used was to dig at the head end of a recent burial, digging with a wooden spade (quieter than metal). When they reached the coffin (in London the graves were quite shallow), they broke open the coffin, put a rope around the corpse and dragged it out. They were often careful not to steal anything such as jewellery or clothes as this would cause them to be liable to a felony charge.
In the United States, body snatchers generally worked in small groups, which scouted and pillaged fresh graves. In general, fresh graves were best, since the earth had not yet settled and digging was easy work. The removed earth was often shoveled onto canvas tarp laid by the grave, so the nearby grounds were undisturbed. Digging commenced at the head of the grave, clear to the coffin. The remaining earth on the coffin provided a counterweight which snapped the partially covered coffin lid (which was covered in sacking to muffle noise) as crowbars or hooks pulled the lid free at the head of the coffin. Usually, the body would be disrobed–the garments thrown back into the coffin before the earth was put back into place.[8]
Resurrectionists have also been known to hire women to act the part of grieving relatives and to claim the bodies of dead at poorhouses. Women were also hired to attend funerals as grieving mourners; their purpose was to ascertain any hardships the body snatchers may later encounter during the disinterment. Bribed servants would sometimes offer body snatchers access to their dead master or mistress lying in state; the removed body would be replaced with weights.[8]
Although medical research and education lagged in the United States compared to medical colleges' European counterparts, the interest in anatomical dissection grew in the United States. Philadelphia, Baltimore, New York were renowned for body snatching activity: all locales provided plenty of cadavers.[9] Finding subjects for dissection proved to be "morally troubling" for students of anatomy. As late as the mid-19th century, John Gorham Coffin, a prominent professor and medical physician wondered how any ethical physician could participate in the traffic of dead bodies.[9]
Dr. Charles Knowlton (1800–1850) was imprisoned for two months in the Worcester (Massachusetts) County Jail for "illegal dissection" in 1824, a couple of months after graduating with distinction from Dartmouth Medical School. His thesis ( defended dissection on the rationalist basis that "value of any art or science should be determined by the tendency it has to increase the happiness, or to diminish the misery, of mankind." Knowlton called for doctors to relieve "public prejudice" by donating their own bodies for dissection.
The body of Ohio congressman John Scott Harrison, son of William Henry Harrison, was snatched in 1878 for Ohio Medical College, and discovered by his son Benjamin Harrison.

4. Anatomy and Physiology (???)
Anatomy deals with the structure (morphology) of the body and its parts; their forms and how they are organized.
Physiology studies the functions of these parts or asks the question, “what do they do and how do they work?”
How Are These Two Related?
Related because the functional role of a part depends on its form/shape.
Examples (hand, heart, mouth, teeth)
Ongoing studies (even today)

5. 1. Atoms are the simplest level.
Levels of Organization:
The human body is the sum of its parts and these parts can be studied at a variety of levels of organization.
1. Atoms are the simplest level.
2. Two or more atoms comprise a molecule.
3. Macromolecules are large, biologically important molecules inside cells.
4. Organelles are aggregates of macromolecules used to carry out a specific function in the cell.

6. Levels of Organization Continued:
5. Cells are the basic living unit.
6. Tissues are groups of cells functioning together.
7. Groups of tissues form organs.
8. Groups of organs function together as organ systems.
9. Organ systems functioning together make up an organism.

7. Levels of Organization:

8. Characteristics of Life
Fundamental characteristics of life are traits shared by all organisms.
What makes you differ from a rock?

9. Characteristics of life include:
1. Movement (internal or gross)
2. Responsiveness (reaction to internal or external change)
3. Growth (increase in size without change in shape)
4. Reproduction (new organisms or new cells)
5. Respiration (use of oxygen; removal of CO2)

10. 8. Circulation (movement within body fluids)
6. Digestion (breakdown of food into simpler forms)
7. Absorption (movement of substances through membranes and into fluids)
8. Circulation (movement within body fluids)
9. Assimilation (changing nutrients into chemically different forms)
10. Excretion (removal of metabolic wastes)
Taken together, these 10 characteristics
constitute metabolism.

11. Homeostasis:
Maintenance of a relatively stable internal environment is called homeostasis.
Homeostasis is regulated through control systems which have:
receptors: provide info about specific conditions in body
set point: tells what a particular value should be (i.e. 37’C)
effectors: causes responses that alter conditions in body
*If your body temperature rises, your body produces sweat to help maintain homeostasis.
*If your body temperature drops, your body starts to shiver to help produce heat to help maintain homeostasis.

12. Examples include:
a. Homeostatic mechanisms regulate body temperature in a manner similar to the functioning of a home heating thermostat.
b. Another homeostatic mechanism employs pressure-sensitive receptors to regulate blood pressure.
Many of the body's homeostatic controls are negative feedback mechanisms.
prevent further change away from normal set point
VIDEO LINK
*Blood pressure and regulating your heart rate is a negative feedback mechanism. Get students to explain how this would work. Get students to explain what would happen if this system would fail. (Heart rate would stay constant, enter fibrilation, increase but it would not DECREASE). *

15. Most feedback mechanisms are negative; however, sometimes change stimulates even further change!
A process that moves conditions away from a normal state is called Positive Feedback (VIDEO LINK)
-Blood Clotting
-Uterine contractions
PF usually produces unstable conditions, which might seem incompatible with homeostasis (short-lived)

16. Bell Work – 1/11/2011 Write Out Question & Your Answer
Explain difference between anatomy & physiology.
A group of cells working together is called a _________, and a group of tissues working together is called a(n) _________.
3) What is the difference between positive and negative feedback systems? Give an example of each?

17. Organization of the Human Body
Major features of the human body include its cavities, membranes, and organ systems.

18. Body Cavities:
The body can be divided into an appendicular portion (upper and lower limbs) and an axial portion (head, neck, and trunk), which includes a dorsal and a ventral cavity. Organs within these cavities are called viscera.

19. a. The dorsal cavity can be divided into two areas:
Cranial cavity – houses brain
Vertebral canal – houses spinal cord within vertebrae
b. The ventral cavity is made up of the following:
Thoracic cavity
The mediastinum divides the thorax into right and left halves.
Abdominopelvic cavity
The abdominopelvic cavity can be divided into the abdominal cavity and the pelvic cavity.
Abdominal Organs: digestive organs
Pelvic: part of large intestine, bladder, reproductive organs
A broad, thin muscle called the diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

22. Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes:
1. The thoracic cavity is lined with pleural membranes; the parietal pleura lines the cavities while the visceral pleura covers the lungs. A thin layer of serous fluid separates the two layers.
2. The heart is surrounded by pericardial membranes. The parietal pericardium makes up an outer sac and the visceral pericardium covers the heart. Serous fluid separates the two layers.

24. Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes

25. Challenge Question
A person is shot and the bullet travels through the left lung and embeds in the heart. List all of the serous membranes and structures the bullet traveled through.

26. Anatomical Terminology
Relative Positions:
1. Terms of relative position describe the location of one body part with respect to another.
2. Terms of relative position include: superior, inferior, anterior (ventral), posterior (dorsal), medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superficial (peripheral), and deep.

28. Body Sections:
1. A sagittal section divides the body into right and left portions.
Midsagittal: divides body into equal left and right parts
2. A transverse (horizontal) section divides the body into superior and inferior portions. It is often called a “cross section”.
3. A coronal (frontal) section divides the body into anterior and posterior sections.

29. Think of ways to help you remembering the planes.
Transverse is slicing at the waist
Frontal is slicing at your front
Sagital is slicing at your breastbone

30. Body Regions 1. The abdominal area can be divided into nine regions.
2. Terms used to refer to various body regions are depicted in Fig
Make sure students can remember and identify these regions. Give helpful hints. They are usually named for area in that region. Also on the quadrants, which one would they typically find the pain for an appendicitis? This is always helpful in life when you have pain in your abdomen. It is the right lower quadrant.

32. Bell Work
1) The body can be divided into a _____________ portion and ______ portion.
2) Lungs and heart are found in the _________ cavity.
3) Your wrist is ________ to your elbow.
4) Your nose is __________ to your eyes.
5) A section that divides the body into anterior and posterior portions is called ____________.

33. 11 Organ Systems Name Them!

35. 11 Organ Systems Name Them!
Body Covering
a. The integumentary system, including skin, hair, nails, and various glands, covers the body, senses changes outside the body, and helps regulate body temperature.

36. Support and Movement
a. The skeletal system is made up of bones and ligaments. It supports, protects, provides frameworks, stores inorganic salts, and houses blood-forming tissues.
b. The muscular system consists of the muscles that provide body movement, posture, and body heat.

37. Integration and Coordination
a. The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs. It integrates incoming information from receptors and sends impulses to muscles and glands.
b. The endocrine system, including all of the glands that secrete hormones, helps to integrate metabolic functions.

38. Transport
a. The cardiovascular system, made up of the heart and blood vessels, distributes oxygen and nutrients throughout the body while removing wastes from the cells.
b. The lymphatic system, consisting of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen, drains excess tissue fluid and includes cells of immunity.

39. Absorption and Excretion
a. The digestive system is made up of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory organs. It receives, breaks down, and absorbs nutrients.
b. The respiratory system exchanges gases between the blood and air and is made up of the lungs and passageways.
c. The urinary system, consisting of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra, removes wastes from the blood and helps to maintain water and electrolyte balance.

40. Reproduction
a. The reproductive system produces new organisms.