1. Environmental Ethics: ETH501
Martin Gluchman, FNU.

2. Introduction What is Environmental Ethics? The Ecological Crisis
The Origins of the Ecological Crisis
Going beyond Anthropocentrism
Dealing with the Fall-out

3. What is Environmental ethics?
Environmental ethics looks at the moral relationship between people, the environment and animals in the world.
“How ought we live with the Earth?”
What is the moral status of the environment and its non-human contents, and what are our obligations to them?
Is it possible to order these obligations?
Mammals? Those that can be tamed, or are most like us?
All animals?
Wild physical landscapes?
Species (bio-diversity)
Ecosystems
The whole world in-itself?

4. What is Environmental Ethics? Case studies
Annual seal hunts across the
world involve the mass
slaughter of 1000s of seals.
There are regulations in some
countries that seals have to be
shot and not clubbed to death
to avoid unnecessary cruelty.
Arguments for the seal hunts
are typically economic – it is
multimillion dollar industry.
However some now justify the
hunts on grounds of protecting
Cod fish stocks.
Why do we object to killing cute animals more? Does the idea of a ‘balanced ecosystem’ trump individual animal rights?

5. What is environmental ethics: case study/issues
“Too many deer can lead to: Damage to trees, wildlife fauna and habitat Damage to farm crops and gardens More traffic accidents Poor health for the deer themselves… To prevent deer population 20-25% should be shot each year.” Are trees and wildlife fauna ranked higher than a living animal?

6. The Cane Toad Cull in Australia
"They're one of the most destructive creatures and the most disgusting creatures and one thing they're doing is they're killing our native wildlife and they're taking over our habitat," Knuth told BBC News.
Are some species to be valued more highly simply because they are fewer in number or indigenous to the area.?

7. What is Environmental Ethics? Case studies/issues
Silent Spring (1962) This book written by Rachel Carson exposed how farmers’ use of insecticide to keep pests from eating their crops went into the foodchain, and subsequently was killing vast numbers of birds. The book kick-started the modern environmental movement.
How do we balance the drive to make a profit versus a care for the environment?

8. What is environmental ethics? Case study issues.
Certain local governments in the United States and Canada are building bridges specifically for animals, whereby they can cross busy freeways that cut across migration routes, mating territory or hunting areas. The incidences of road-kill have plummeted. Good environmental ethics can locate and provide for mutual benefits to both man and animals.

9. Environmental Ethics – Case study
The Namosi Mine Just a few kilometres outside of Suva one of the world’s largest copper mines is going to be created. Newcrest, an Australian mining company has recently been awarded the licence to dig for copper and gold. While this site has been known about for 30 years, it is only recently with the increasing price of metals that the economic argument (or indeed the influence of big business) has been able to trump local concerns of environment destruction. How do we balance economic development against protecting the environment from permanent harm?

10. The Ecological Crisis…
The world is ticking towards a scary conclusion…

11. The Ecological Crisis
The 21st Century is overwhelmed with the problems caused by reckless human exploitation of the natural environment and a rapidly growing population.
Ever since the first photographs from space,the image of the Earth has been one of beauty and uniqueness. Yet also one of being an oddity, a self-enclosed oasis in the cold desert of space. As such we have started to wake up to how mis-matched our unlimited consumer wants are to the actual resources available to satisfy them

12. Climate Change Global emissions of greenhouse gases trap heat within
the Earth’s atmosphere, slowly causing it to heat up

13. Cabinet ministers in the Maldives held an underwater meeting Saturday to draw attention to the threat global warming poses to the lowest-lying nation on earth

15. “I hope I can live in the Maldives and raise my grandchildren here”
“If the Maldives, a small relatively poor country can achieve a big reduction in its greenhouse gas emissions, there can be no excuse from richer nations who claim that going green is too complex, too expensive, or too much bother," he said.
As the world's lowest-lying country, the Maldives may also be the world's most threatened nation from climate change. Made up of twenty-six atolls, it is estimated that a one meter rise in the world's sea levels could swamp the country, forcing the exodus of over 300,000 people.
“I hope I can live in the Maldives and raise my grandchildren here”
Mohamed Nasheed
President of the Maldives

17. Climate Change
A warming world will cause physical geography changes: Intense weather patterns – increasing drought, violent cyclonic activity, impacting on El Niño and La Niña currents. Rising sea levels – threatening low lying communities, agriculture and coastal aquifers. Impact on food and water resources – bring droughts, glacier-melt irrigation loss, crop failure, desertification Positive Feedback is also expected. Methane from melting permafrost and the reduction of carbon sinks

18. Climate Change – Political dilemmas
Its not just the immediate, natural consequences of climate change that threaten us. As food and water becomes scarce there will be fiercer competition over resources. There will be large numbers of climate change refugees too. Those who are poor are most likely to suffer the most. It may well be that only strong ethics will keep us from falling into chaos and war.

19. Water Flows or Blood – India and Pakistan
Militant organizations traditionally focused on liberating Indian-held Kashmir have adopted water as a rallying cry, accusing India of strangling upstream rivers to desiccate downstream farms in Pakistan's dry agricultural heartland. This spring, a religious leader suspected of links to the 2008 Mumbai attacks led a protest here of thousands of farmers driving tractors and carrying signs warning: "Water Flows or Blood.” The cleric, Hafiz Sayeed, recently told worshipers that India was guilty of "water terrorism.” India and Pakistan have pledged to improve relations. But Sayeed's water rhetoric, echoed in shrill headlines on both sides of the border, encapsulates two issues that threaten those fragile peace efforts -- an Indian dam project on the shared Indus River and Pakistan's reluctance to crack down on Sayeed. It also signals the expanding ambitions of Punjab-based militant groups such as the banned Lashkar-i-Taiba, founded by Sayeed, through an issue that touches millions who live off Pakistan's increasingly arid land.Pakistan's water supply is dwindling because of climate change, outdated farming techniques and an exploding population. Now Pakistan says India is exacerbating its woes by violating the treaty that for 50 years has governed use of water originating in Kashmir.
Tributary from Kashmir Himalayars

20. Climate Change - Mitigation
It’s a sad fact that our present international institutions are failing us on climate change. World leaders are unwilling to sacrifice their country’s individual interests for the rest of the world, especially where there’s suspicion other countries may cheat on their emissions reductions.

21. Group think, moral autonomy and Kant (universal principle)

22. Waste Disposal
Fiji and the Plastic Bag Fiji uses over 66 million plastic bags a year. Whilst difficult to prove (they’ve only been about for 50 years), it is estimated that a plastic bag takes 500 years to bio-degrade. Other estimates go closer to 1000 years. Where do these plastic bags all go? See video clip.

23. World’s largest rubbish dump

24. Biodiversity and Species Extinction
“Quarter of all mammal species face extinction in 30 years” BBC, June “Study: Only 10% of big ocean fish remain” CNN, May “Lion populations have fallen by over 90% in the last 20 years” BBC, Sept “Humans driving extinction faster than species can evolve, say experts” The Guardian, May 2010

25. Age of Loneliness
Harvard Academic E O Wilson has written about how this present extinction event is unique since the end of the dinosaur. He argues that the human world is heading toward an Age of Loneliness whereby all other animals have been wiped off the planet.

26. Water Pollution
Water pollution in the Phillipines.

27. Air Pollution
Smog in Beijing, where air pollution is a growing problem

28. Lands laid waste by open cut mining

29. Toxins pumped into the atmosphere…

30. The Ecological Crisis
Short term economic gains, out of control individual consumerism, and lack of care for the world and other life, is leading us to a world without all its original beauty, majesty and grace. There are many, many human-centred arguments for caring for the world we live in: Biodiversity (medicines), human appreciation of wild natural spaces, passing on a good world to our children… Yet environmental ethics typically pushes another point of view

31. Instrumental vs. Inherent Value
A key issue for environmental ethics is to argue that animals and nature itself do not have merely instrumental value, but inherent value as well. Instrumental – Something is merely a means to an end. eg: The family dog is ONLY valued for guarding the house. Inherent - An end in-itself. To be treated with consideration in its own right. eg: The family dog is treated as a member of the family, and treated as a subject with interests and as such, a level of respect. Environmental ethics often looks for how we may establish ‘inherent value’ in nature. Valuing it in-itself. Giving nature only instrumental value leads to its continued destruction.

32. Origins of the Ecological Crisis
Many Environmental Ethicists believe the cause of the Ecological Crisis is namely due to Anthropocentrism This is the viewpoint that everything in the world is about humankind. Anthropo = human Centrism = Focus Everything in the world is only of instrumental value to humankind. They can therefore do whatever they please with the natural world. For “they are the masters of their universe,”

33. Early Western Understandings of Nature
Aristotle: “Nature has made all things for the sake of man” (Politics, Bk1, Ch8) Immanuel Kant – We should avoid cruelty to dogs, as those who are cruel to dogs, are likely to be cruel to humans. (“Duties to Animals and Spirits” Lecture on Ethics) Both Aristotle and Kant had an anthropocentric (instrumental) approach to Nature and its worth.

34. Origins of the Ecological Crisis
The origins of the ecological crisis can be traced to the Industrial Revolution that started in Britain in the early 1800s. As the Empire spread its influence over the world, so too went its Western ideas and way of life. The crisis goes hand in hand with capitalism, modern science, colonialism, Protestant Christianity, urbanisation and industrialisation.

35. Origins of the Ecological Crisis - Christianity
One of the first arguments regarding the origins of
the Ecological Crisis was by Lynn White, who pointed
to passages in the Book of Genesis as instructions to
look at the world through anthropocentrism. As
Christian Missionaries spread throughout the Empire,
so did this view of nature.
“Then God said, ‘Let us make humankind in our image,
according to our likeness, and let them have dominion
over the fish of the sea, over birds of the air, and over
cattle, and over the earth, and over every creeping thing
that creeps the earth…’
God blessed them, and God said to them, ‘Be fruitful and
multiply, and fill the earth and subdue it; and have
dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds in
the air and over every thing that moves upon the earth.”
(Genesis 1: 26-29)

36. Origins of the Ecological Crisis
This may seem to some as a little unfair. The Bible does include a message of a care for nature. God’s next command was for Adam to name the animals – implying a meaningful link to the natural world, and of course there is the story of Noah, and later the teachings of St Francis of Assisi – Patron Saint of Animals. We may point out that the Bible could be interpreted either way – a weak attachment to nature or a strong one – so we may have to look for additional reasons elsewhere for why this interpretation could have been so emphasized.

37. Origins of the Ecological Crisis – Individualistic Consumerism
Another idea is that it is a result of post second world consumer capitalism. Consumer capitalism divides us into self-interested individual profit maximizers, ever seeking more material possessions, and less regard for wider social values. Consumer capitalism demands unlimited economic growth and cleverly establishes a massive advertising machine to keep us buying next best thing off the production line. It is a system that is self-perpetuating seemingly regardless of the harm it may be doing to the wider world. Furthermore, we seem unable to stop!
Unfortunately, with massive population growth and our unlimited wants, something had to give. It appears to be the environment, as capitalism is continuing to consume like never before!

38. Origins of the Ecological Crisis - Patriarchy
Feminist scholars, using Ecofeminisim, have pointed to the strong similarities between man’s domination and subordination of nature for his immediate desires, to that of Patriarchal society’s oppression of women. It is a relation of master/slave, controller/controlled. Indeed this is reflected in how Western society talks of ‘Mother’ nature, and of her wild, unpredictable nature that needs to be tamed by a firm and rational (male) hand. There are also similarities here between the power relation of Empire and colony. The control of unruly nature is where we see the perceived social function of ‘manly’ science.

39. Origins of the Ecological Crisis – The Disenchantment of Nature
Since the rise of the natural sciences of Isaac Newton, the world has become coldly mathematical; a matter of everything in the world understandable by cause-and-effect. Mystery, the divine and the awe-inspiring majesty of nature is now reduced to atoms, elements and equations. Arguably from this occurring Nature has lost its power to humble us, or to provoke us. Technology has removed us from the natural rhythms of the world (just think of turning on a light switch at night) and so modern life causes us to ignore both the beauty, the value and the interests of the natural world
More inspiring: Sunrise or light bulb?

40. Environmentalism and Anthropocentrism
Premise 1: X leads to anthropocentrism Premise 2: Anthropocentrism leads to environmentally damaging behavior. Premise 3: X is the origins of the environmental crisis. X can be Christianity, Individualism, Capitalism and modern economic progress, the disenchantment of nature, patriarchy. If Premise 2 is true, we must develop a view of nature different to anthropocentrism!!

41. Beyond Anthropocentrism
Two key ways:
Extensionism – including or incorporating aspects of nature into the systems of values we have for treating other humans fairly. This works particularly for animals
Biocentrism – to give physical nature its own integrity and value in its own right.

42. 1. EXTENSIONISM
Extends moral rights to all sentient beings (i.e. all beings with the capacity to feel). Considers the interests & well-being of other living things (‘animal rights’)
In this sense it extends the individual rights we give to human beings to animals. They are individual beings in their own right and demand our respect. This approach fits with utilitarian and deontological theory.

43. Elephants mourn their dead
Most mammals show little to no interest in the dead remains of their own species, but elephants do not fit this stereotype. You could even say that "an elephant never forgets"...its friends and family. They have been shown to pay considerable amounts of attention to skulls, tusks, and other bones. In an experiment, African elephants demonstrated the ability to distinguish between their own remains and those of rhinos or buffalo. Researchers hypothesize that elephants may be better able to recognize the bones of relatives and group members than individuals with which they have not spent significant amounts of time.

44. They are ‘subjects-in-themselves’.
Peter Singer’s book ANIMAL LIBERATION, first published in called “The Bible of the Animal Welfare Movement”:
Singer argues that animals have inherent value because they are conscious creatures who value their own welfare which is no way dependent on their usefulness to others.
They are ‘subjects-in-themselves’.
As a utilitarian Singer also draws attention to animals capacity to suffer also demanding moral consideration

45. Full animal rights
Animals have rights
Animals should be treated in the way that is best for the animals concerned - which may not be the way that suits human beings
It is wrong for human beings to use animals for food, clothing, experiment or anything else
It is wrong for humans to disregard the consequences to animals of their actions
This applies to all animals, regardless of the way human beings feel about them
It may sometimes be morally correct to violate an animal's rights when these conflict with the rights of another animal or a human being - each case must be decided on its merits

46. Faeroe Island in Denmark – senseless annual ritual killing of Calderon dolphins – to show ‘manliness’

47. Cruel de-finning of sharks - for shark-fin soup

49. Plundering the seas – a super seiner can carry 2,600 tons of fish in its hold

51. BIOCENTRISM
Biocentrism calls for a fundamental re- imagining of human identity.
ALL of nature has value, and humans are not superior in any moral or ethical sense.
Basically we are just one face or aspect of a much greater environment.

52. The intrinsic value of forests….
A thing of beauty is a joy forever…..?
Be one with the trees!

53. Biocentrism and Deep Ecology
The idea of Deep Ecology is that we need to stop thinking of ourselves as individual, self-contained units, wholly separate. We are not, we a DEEPLY rooted in nature. Our humanity is a product of evolution. We are just one knot in the fishing net of life. We must understand our identity in relation to nature, not in opposition. We need to integrate, not distance ourselves from nature.

54. Biocentrism and Biodiversity
Holmes Rolstrom III, an American theologian, also talked not just about the value of things – people, animals, trees, mountains, etc… but also of types. Biodiversity ought to be valued just as much as bio-mass. Indeed Holmes Rolstrom argued that species are more valuable than individual creatures because they preserve ‘genetic possibility’ and give respect to the PROCESSES of life.

55. An appeal to Virtue Theory
What constitutes the good life? “A reconnection with the beauty of the world” (Adorno/Horkheimer) What kind of virtues are relevant to living in a world that needs to be managed: Caring; prudence; consideration of others; honesty; simplicity; moderation; humility; empathy; respect for others… Can you think of some more!!

56. Dealing with the Fall-out:
Increasing human population
Same sized earth
Need resources to sustain the population
Resources aren’t shared equally – how to combine justice with sustainability?
So how do we ethically move forward?
How do we change hearts and minds regarding people making sacrifices

57. How do we sustain Earth’s interconnected life systems?
Two Concepts:
Caution in the face of uncertainty
The Precautionary Principle
Environmental accounting
The Triple Bottom Line

58. Precautionary Principle
If there are threats of serious environmental damage, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to prevent environmental degradation.
Example is climate change
Not 100% sure it’s caused by humans (only 98%!!!)
Not a reason to stop trying to mitigate.
Often difficult to act when you can’t see the negative effects just yet.

59. Ways of tackling to Climate Change
Carbon off-setting.
Decarbonisation – Renewable fuels instead of carbon-based fuels,
more efficient fuels, better energy conservation.
Nuclear Power and cold fusion
Public transport
Reduced air-traffic – rise of internet
Geo-engineering
A worldwide change of lifestyle

60. RECYCLING COOKING OIL
In Japan, households throw out nearly 200,000 tons of used cooking oil every year, some of it simply poured down the drain, from where it pollutes local waterways.
For YumiSomeya of U's Corporation, all that grease and grime is a hidden treasure. "Tokyo is a big oil field," she says, "and every home and restaurant is a spot for drilling.“
VDF currently fuels Someya's fleet of oil-collecting trucks, as well as some city buses and service vehicles that maintain Tokyo's expressways. It's also used to generate electricity at events like the Fuji Rock Festival and Earth Day Tokyo, and the family company has made a compact VDF-production machine for sale to anyone who wants to do a bit of backyard recycling. Read more:
REMEMBER TO WATCH THIS WEEKS FILM “AN INCONVENIENT TRUTH”!

61. The ‘Triple Bottom Line’
The ‘bottom line’ ( from accounting) is the last line in a company’s statement of accounts that shows either a net profit or loss. Its the line that matters.
Companies try to improve their bottom lines by increasing their revenue or earnings
Triple Bottom Line accounting means a company is reporting on its ecological and social performance, as well as financial performance.
TBL gives equal importance to people, planet and profit

62. A TBL business would not use child labour
would ensure that none of the companies it subcontracts to uses child labour
would pay fair wages and ensure a safe work environment and fair working conditions for its workers
would not exploit or harm the local community
would seek to contribute to the well-being of the local community e.g. by supporting health care and/or education.

63. PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT - REDUCING OUR CARBON FOOTPRINT
Pure Fiji is committed to sustainable manufacturing and reducing its carbon footprint. Botanical ingredients such as the blend of nut oils are wild-harvested. This reduces our requirement for energy dependent irrigation and fertilization methods thus limiting our carbon impact. Bottles used in packaging are PET which are an environmentally responsible choice as they require 24% less energy to produce and generate 40% less solid waste than glass bottles. Gift packaging is made by hand using natural fibers such as handmade paper or in delightful woven baskets.
                                                            

64. Education
Pure Fiji provides student scholarships.
Sixteen of the most promising children are chosen from the village primary school, and from that point Pure Fiji funds the children from their primary through to secondary school years, with successful candidates also receiving assistance with university fees. Children are selected in consultation with the headmasters of the schools and with the village chief.
For many communities, these children will be the first members of the community to achieve such a high level of education. To date, three of these students have now graduated from their tertiary studies; two as qualified teachers and the third continuing on to study Environmental Sciences at the University of the South Pacific.

65. Now villagers can afford school fees and have made improvements to the local primary school and this year they are building additional classrooms.
Building and setting up of a village store.
This is complete with a refrigerator and deep freezer that are powered by a generator also purchased by the women.
The latest milestone achieved has been the construction of additional classrooms for a secondary school and a library.

66. “Live simply – that others
may simply live”
(Gandhi)