1. Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, Weather & Climate Hydrosphere: the Earth’s water & ice layer: 97% salt water & 3% fresh water (3/4 of fresh water is in ice, nearly 1/4 is ground water, less than 1% is in lakes, rivers, & is water vapor) Smaller streams empty into rivers, which empty into larger rivers, then finally to the ocean.

2. Stream Development Stream Channel: a narrow pathway carved into sediment or rock by moving water Meander: bend or curve in a stream channel caused by moving water An ox bow lake is created over time as erosion and deposition changes the river's course. Delta is a landform that forms from deposition of sediment carried by a river as the flow leaves its mouth and enters slower-moving or standing water.

3. Movement and Storage of Groundwater Infiltration, zone of saturation, zone of aeration,& water table -Permeability (ability of water to penetrate) - aquifers, aquicludes & springs - Karst topography is characterized by caves & sinkholes

4. Atmosphere: the thin mixture of gases that surround the Earth 78% Nitrogen, 21% Oxygen, 1% trace gases (carbon dioxide, argon, water vapor, etc.) temperature and pressure decrease with elevation (temp. ↓ 6.5°C per 1 km) (14.7 PSI at sea level) type and percentages of gases remains the same, but density decreases

5. Layers of the atmosphere Thermosphere (heat): Ionosphere & Exosphere. From 80 km into outer space. Mesosphere (middle): From 50 – 80 km up. Stratosphere (spreading out): From 12 – 50 km. Troposphere (turning): From 0 to 12 km. Temperatures ↓ at a rate of 6.5°C per km. (weather layer)

6. Global convection currents: movement of air between the equator and poles, caused by temperature differences, that produce global wind patterns. Coriolis Effect: The way Earth’s rotation makes winds in the Northern Hemisphere curve to the right (eastward) and winds in the Southern Hemisphere curve to the left. (westward).

7. Global Atmospheric Wind Patterns: Doldrums: near equator, a calm area where warm air rises Tradewinds: blow from the horse latitudes (calm areas of falling air) toward the equator Horse Latitudes: areas of calm where cool air sinks at the tropics Prevailing Westerlies: blow away from the horse latitudes toward the poles Polar Easterlies: cold polar air blowing away from the poles

8. Air Masses affect weather and climate. 1.Maritime Polar: cool moist air from over polar water 2.Maritime Tropical: warm moist air from over tropical water 3.Continental Polar: cold dry air from over polar land 4.Continental Tropical: hot dry air from over tropical land 5.Arctic: cold dry air, receives little solar radiation in winter, but near constant solar radiation in summer.

9. Fronts affect weather 1.Cold Front: cold air moves under warmer air – storms 2.Warm Front: warm air moves over colder air – light precipitation, followed by warm/dry weather 3.Occluded Front: cold & cool air masses come together & force warm air up – light precipitation 4.Stationary Front: stays in one place for extended time.

10. Weather: the current atmospheric phenomena of an area Humidity is the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given temperature Clouds form as water vapor condenses on condensation nuclei (particulates of dust, smoke, or ash) as the air cools. Precipitation: H 2 O falling to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, hail.

11. Winds are caused by differences in pressure due to the imbalanced heating of Earth’s surface. High and Low Pressure Areas: H=dry weather; L=wet weather.

12. Weather Forecasting Maps

13. Seasons are caused by the tilt of the Earth on its axis. Seasons are NOT caused by distance from the Sun.

14. Climate: typical weather pattern in an area over a long period of time Main factors that influence temperature: - latitude (distance from the equator) - distance from large bodies of water (water holds heat and keep coastal areas more moderate, in-land areas have wider temperature extremes) - ocean currents (currents from the equator bring warm air, from poles bring cold air)

15. Main factors that affect precipitation are prevailing winds & the presence of mountains -Mountain Effects on Climate: * Windward: water vapor condenses in rising air on windward side of the mountain chain producing precipitation. Produces a very moist climate * Leeward: dry air moves over the top of the mountain chain producing a very dry climate.

16. Major Climate Zones: Tropical Rainforest: wet, over 100 inches precipitation, 70 – 80 ºF. Desert: dry, less than 10 inches precipitation, hot, up to 120 ºF. Grassland: moist, 10 – 30 inches precipitation, cold winters & hot summers, -40 – 110 ºF. Temperate Marine (mediteranean/subtropical): moist, 20 – 50 inches precipitation, moderate temps, 40 – 90 ºF. Deciduous Forest (temperate continental): moist, 20 – 40 inches precipitation, cold winters & hot summers, -20 – 100 ºF. Coniferous Forest (taiga/boreal forest): moist, 20 – 30 inches precipitation, cool climate, -30 – 70 ºF. Tundra (permafrost): moist, 10 – 20 inches of precipitation, cold, -70 – 55 ºF. Highlands: mountainous regions with similar climates to tundra. Polar: permanently covered in ice