1. 5-0 Chapter 5 Perception and Individual Decision Making

2. Chapter Learning Objectives  After studying this chapter, you should be able to: –Define perception and explain the factors that influence it. –Explain attribute theory and list the three determinants of attribution. –Identify the shortcuts individuals use in making judgments about others. –Explain the link between perception and decision making. –Apply the rational model of decision-making and contrast it with bounded rationality and intuition. –List and explain the common decision biases or errors. –Explain how individual differences and organizational constraints affect decision-making. –Contrast the three ethical decision criteria. –Define creativity and discuss the three-component model of creativity. 5-1

3. What is Perception?  A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment.  People’s behavior is based on their perception of what reality is, not on reality itself.  The world as it is perceived is the world that is behaviorally important. 5-2

4. 影響知覺的要素 5-3  知覺者 Perceiver – 個人的態度，動機，過去的經驗，本身期望  目標物 Target – 目標物的特徵  情境 Situation – 事物出現時的環境因素 時間，場合

5. Factors that Influence Perception 5-4 See E X H I B I T 5-1

6. Attribution Theory: Judging Others (person perception )  Our perception and judgment of others is significantly influenced by our assumptions of the other person’s internal state. –When individuals observe behavior, they attempt to determine whether it is internally or externally caused. Internal causes are under that person’s control External causes are not – person forced to act in that way 5-5

7. 歸因理論 (attribution theory) 5-6 判斷他人行為時，會企圖解釋是外在或內在因素造成該行 為發生  歸因  Ex ：學生遲到了 內在 ( 個人 )— 該行為是當事人決定者 外在 ( 情境 )— 該行為是外在因素導致者 內在歸因：昨天夜烤，睡過頭了 外在歸因：交通阻塞判斷

8. Causation judged through  Distinctiveness  Shows different behaviors in different situations.  Consensus  Response is the same as others to same situation.  Consistency  Responds in the same way over time. 5-7 當事人的行為是否異常 不同人遇到相同狀況均有相同反應 當事人的表現越一致，易歸為內在歸因

9. Elements of Attribution Theory 5-8 See E X H I B I T 5-2

10. Errors and Biases in Attributions  Fundamental Attribution Error( 基本歸因誤差 ) –The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others –We blame people first, not the situation  Self-Serving Bias ( 自利性偏差 ) –The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors –It is “our” success but “their” failure 5-9

11. Frequently Used Shortcuts in Judging Others  Selective Perception ( 選擇性知覺 ) – 人基於本身的興趣、背景、經驗、及態度，選擇性地解析其所看 到的事物  Halo Effect( 月暈效果 ) – 根據個人的某項特質而推斷其整體評價  Contrast Effects ( 對比效果 ) – 個人對某特質已存在的印象或評價，會影響其對他人於該特質上 的評價 5-10 因自己的因素選擇性了解，卻無看到事實的全貌 在特質不清，模糊兩可，判斷他人經驗太少時，最易發生。因某 項特質而左右整體評價。

12. Another Shortcut: Stereotyping ( 刻板印象 ) Judging someone on the basis of one’s perception of the group to which that person belongs – a prevalent and often useful, if not always accurate, generalization  先認定別人是屬於某種團體，據此判斷他的行為  Profiling –A form of stereotyping in which members of a group are singled out for intense scrutiny based on a single, often racial, trait. 5-11 會因對某團體的偏見，而做出不正確的知覺判斷

13. Specific Shortcut Applications in Organizations  Employment Interview –Perceptual biases of raters affect the accuracy of interviewers’ judgments of applicants –Formed in a single glance – 1/10 of a second!  Performance Expectations –Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion effect- 預言效果 ): The lower or higher performance of employees reflects preconceived leader expectations about employee capabilities  Performance Evaluations –Appraisals are often the subjective (judgmental) perceptions of appraisers of another employee’s job performance –Critical impact on employees 5-12

14. Perceptions and Individual Decision Making  Problem –A perceived discrepancy between the current state of affairs and a desired state  Decisions –Choices made from among alternatives developed from data  Perception Linkage: –All elements of problem identification and the decision making process are influenced by perception. Problems must be recognized Data must be selected and evaluated 5-13

15. Decision-Making Models in Organizations  Rational Decision-Making –The “perfect world” model: assumes complete information, all options known, and maximum payoff. –Six step decision-making process  Bounded Reality –The “real world” model: seeks satisfactory and sufficient solutions from limited data and alternatives  Intuition –A non-conscious process created from distilled experience that results in quick decisions Relies on holistic associations Affectively charged – engaging the emotions 5-14 See E X H I B I T 5-3

16. Common Biases and Errors in Decision-Making  Overconfidence Bias( 過度自信的偏誤 ) –Believing too much in our own ability to make good decisions – especially when outside of own expertise  Anchoring Bias( 定錨偏誤 ) –Using early, first received information as the basis for making subsequent judgments  Confirmation Bias( 確定偏誤 ) –Selecting and using only facts that support our decision  Availability Bias ( 可利用性偏誤 ) –Emphasizing information that is most readily at hand Recent Vivid 5-15

17. More Common Decision-Making Errors  Escalation of Commitment( 信守以往 ) 往 –Increasing commitment to a decision in spite of evidence that it is wrong – especially if responsible for the decision!  Randomness Error ( 隨機偏誤 ) –Creating meaning out of random events - superstitions  Winner’s Curse –Highest bidder pays too much due to value overestimation –Likelihood increases with the number of people in auction  Hindsight Bias( 後見之明的偏誤 ) –After an outcome is already known, believing it could have been accurately predicted beforehand 5-16

18. Individual Differences in Decision-Making  Personality –Conscientiousness may effect escalation of commitment Achievement-strivers are likely to increase commitment Dutiful people are less like to have this bias –Self-Esteem High self-esteem people are susceptible to self-serving bias 5-17  Gender Women analyze decisions more than men – rumination( 反芻 ) Women are twice as likely to develop depression Differences develop early

19. Organizational Constraints  Performance Evaluation –Managerial evaluation criteria influence actions  Reward Systems –Managers will make the decision with the greatest personal payoff for them  Formal Regulations –Limit the alternative choices of decision makers  System-imposed Time Constraints –Restrict ability to gather or evaluate information  Historical Precedents –Past decisions influence current decisions 5-18

20. Ethics in Decision Making  Ethical Decision Criteria –Utilitarianism( 功利觀點 ) Decisions made based solely on the outcome Seeking the greatest good for the greatest number Dominant method for businesspeople –Rights( 權益觀點 ) Decisions consistent with fundamental liberties and privileges Respecting and protecting basic rights of individuals such as whistleblowers –Justice( 正義觀點 ) Imposing and enforcing rules fairly and impartially Equitable distribution of benefits and costs 5-19

21. Ethical Decision-Making Criteria Assessed  Utilitarianism –Pro: Promotes efficiency and productivity –Con: Can ignore individual rights, especially minorities  Rights –Pro: Protects individuals from harm; preserves rights –Con: Creates an overly legalistic work environment  Justice –Pro: Protects the interests of weaker members –Con: Encourages a sense of entitlement 5-20

22. Improving Creativity in Decision Making  Creativity –The ability to produce novel and useful ideas  Who has the greatest creative potential? –Those who score high in Openness to Experience –People who are intelligent, independent, self-confident, risk- taking, have an internal locus-of-control, tolerant of ambiguity, low need for structure, and who persevere in the face of frustration 5-21

23. The Three Component Model of Creativity Proposition that individual creativity results from a mixture of three components –Expertise is the foundation –Creative-Thinking Skills are the personality characteristics associated with creativity –Intrinsic Task Motivation is the desire to do the job because of its characteristics 5-22 See E X H I B I T 5-4 Expertise Creative- Thinking Skills Intrinsic Task Motivation

24. Global Implications  Attributions –There are cultural differences in the ways people attribute cause to observed behavior  Decision-Making –No research on the topic: assumption of “no difference” –Based on our awareness of cultural differences in traits that affect decision making, this assumption is suspect  Ethics –No global ethical standards exist –Asian countries tend not to see ethical issues in “black and white” but as shades of gray –Global companies need global standards for managers 5-23

25. Summary and Managerial Implications  Perception: –People act based on how they view their world –What exists is not as important as what is believed –Managers must also manage perception  Individual Decision Making –Most use bounded rationality: they satisfice –Combine traditional methods with intuition and creativity for better decisions Analyze the situation and adjust to culture and organizational reward criteria Be aware of, and minimize, biases 5-24