1. Chapter 5. Planning Goals and Learning Outcomes
J. C. Richards

2. Determining goals & outcomes
Purposeful learning to achieve specific goals
Use of goals improves effectiveness of teaching & learning
Sustainability of program with clear descriptions of sound goals

3. Questions related to curriculum goals
Value of reflecting sts’ practical needs
Practical surviving skills vs. dealing with problems in life
Extent of learner participation
Content or skills
Issue of raising sts’ awareness on social problems
Teach to test or find fairer ways to assess.

4. Ideology of Curriculum
-Curricular influence of interest groups (Klibard, 1986)
Academic rationalism
-intrinsic value of subject matter
-elitist status of English-medium education
-Clark(1987): U.K. curriculum’s two-tier system
Higher cultural traditions of an elite vs. more concrete & practical lifestyle of the masses
Developing elite’s general intellectual capacities & critical faculties
Maintenance of stands or standards

5. Societal & Economic Efficiency
Ends-means approach (Bobbit, 1918): Scientific principles applied to curriculum-Taylorism
Socioeconomic ideology:English as a global language or a bussiness tool
Debate over skills-based vs. academically based instruction: move away from academic rationalism for last two decades

6. Societal & Economic Efficiency
Dominance of Threshold Level, notional-functional syllabus, outcome-based approaches (graded objectives, competency-based)
Criticism of traditional(social-efficiency) approach: reductionists, pre-determined learners’ needs & objectives, Banking model (Freire, 1975)

7. Learner-centeredness
Reconceptualists
-respect for personal experiences, lived experiences, imagination, understanding different from dissection & measurement (Pinar, 1975)
Constructivists
-importance of re-learning & reorganization of previous understanding & representation of knowledge (Roberts, 1998), intellectual growth through reconstruction or reworking (Dewey, 1934)

8. Learner-centeredness
-Clark(1987): Progressivism to emphasize students’ own efforts & role of experiences in various developmental stages -Marsh (1986): Individualized teaching, learning through practical operation & learning, laisses faire (no organized curriculum but based on children’s momentary interests), creative self-expressions, practically oriented activities for social needs, reject teacher-directed learning

9. Social Reconstructionism
Concern for equal opportunities (Freire, 1972; Apple, 1986)
Issues of unjust systems of class, race, gender
Morris(1995): curriculum for caring others, environment, distribution of wealth
Freire (1972): joint process of exploring & construction knowledge
Auerbach (1992): students as change agents
Giroux: Teachers as public intellectuals

10. Social Reconstructionism
Critical Theory & Pedagogy (Kincheloe & McLaren, 1994)
-thoughts mediated by power relations, socially & historically constituted, form of ideological inscription, language as central in formation of subjectivity, reproduction of oppression through acceptance of the status quo & mainstream research
Criticism: difficulty of changing system or other changes available???

11. Cultural Pluralism Banks (1988): Multiculturalism
ACTFL: intercultural competence in FLT by learning, comparing, & exploring
Issue of using L2 & importance of using L1 (Auerbach, 1995; Collinghan, 1988)
Curriculum as result of political judgment not stated explicitly but reflect unstated values & assumptions

12. Stating Curriculum Outcomes
Aims (Goals): general purposes of curriculum
Sts will learn how to write effective business letter for use in the hotel & restaurant industries (* Sts will learn about business-letter writing in English)
-Sts will learn how to communicate information & ideas creatively & effectively through writing (* Sts will practice composition skills in English.)

13. Stating Curriculum Outcomes
Objectives: a more specific & concrete description of purposes (see pp )
Smaller units of learning, a basis for organization of teaching activities, observable behavior or performance
Advantages of setting up objectives: facilitate planning, measurable outcomes & accountability, prescriptive

14. Stating Curriculum Outcomes
Developing language objectives: consider nature of subject matter, attainable outcomes for levels, logical & well-structured units of organization
Ex) Aim-Sts will learn how to understand lectures given in English.
Objectives: -Sts will be able to follow an
argument, theme, or thesis of a lecture.

15. Stating Curriculum Outcomes
-Sts will learn how to recognize the following aspects of a lecture:
cause & effect relationships
comparisons & contrasts
premises used in persuasive arguments
supporting details use in persuasive arguments

16. Characteristics of Objectives
1. Describe a learning outcome-avoid ‘will study’. ‘will learn about’, ‘will prepare’.
2. Should be consistent with the curricular aims: relevance to aims
3. Should be precise: not vague & ambiguous
4. Should be feasible: attainable within time

17. Criticism of the Use of Objectives
1. Turn teaching into a technology: behavioral objectives for efficiency, need for meeting both language & non-language outcomes
2. Trivialize teaching & product-oriented: describe important processes & experiences as well as observable outcomes
3. Are unsuited to many aspects of language use: may describe mastery of skills but not for critical thinking, literary appreciation, or negotiation of meaning
-focus on experiences in the curriculum which enhance critical thinking rather than specific learning outcomes

18. Competency-based Program Outcomes
Competency-based Language Teaching(CBLT): focus more the ends of learning rather than means (content or process of teaching or learning)
Emphasis on accountability: measurable outcomes & performance standards
Schneck(1978): performance-based instruction, mastery learning, individualized instruction; Students’ abilities to apply basic & other skills to situations in everyday life based on the analysis of tasks required of Sts

19. The Nature of Competencies
Observable behaviors for successful completion of real-world activities
Docking (1994): units of competency in which subordinate elements specified; specific knowledge, thinking processes, attitudes, & perceptual & physical skills for job performance; independent of context & time

20. The Nature of Competencies
Tollefson (1986): competency-based teaching objectives developed in 1860s & development of program in 1960s (Spencer; Bobbit, 1926)
Northrup reports (1977): five knowledge areas & four basic skill area along with 65 competencies
Mrowicki(1986) & Australian Migrant education program: examples of competency-based programs (see pp )

21. Criticism of the Use of Competencies
Definition of competencies-no available specifications but based on intuition & experience, trivialization of nature of activity (Tollefson, 1986)
Hidden value underlying competency specifications-based on social & economic efficiency model, value judgments, passivization of already underprivilized people (see pp )
* May fit more for specific tasks in ESP programs

22. The Standards Movement
The “standards(benchmarks)” movement in 1990s: raising national education standards for subject matter across the curriculum
TESOL Standards for K-12 to provide “unrestricted access to grade-appropriate instruction in challenging academic subjects (see Appendix 3)
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR)

23. Non-language Outcome & Process Objectives
More based on learning experiences than linguistic content or outcomes, which reflect learner-centeredness, social reconstructions, & cultural pluralism
Nonlanguage Outcomes
-Jackson(1993): 8 curricular categories: social, psychological, & emotional support, confidence, motivation, cultural understanding, knowledge of context, learning about learning(meta-learning), clarifications of goals, access to career

24. Non-language Outcome & Process Objectives
Jackson(1993): Outcomes are essential prerequisites for on-going & meaningful involvement with processes of language learning & other general learning
-See the objective of immigrants (Jackson, 1993; pp )

25. Non-language Outcome & Process Objectives
Process Objectives: Bruner(1966), Stenhouse (1975)-more focus on knolwedge & skills based on learners’ needs
Processes of investigation, decision-making, reflection, discussion, interpretation, making choices, etc.
See Hanley et al. (1970; pp. 135)

26. Process Objectives
Specify the content sts will study & activities/processes related to it.
Stenhouse (1975): no predetermined objectives but speculative & indeterminate knowledge worthwhile to students
Learning strategies for effective learning by developing integrated procedures, selecting appropriate ones for tasks, & monitor, replace, or revise then if necessary

27. Process Objectives
Example of secondary school for developing sts’ awareness of learning processes and their roles:
- organize & subdive learning tasks
- use of reference words for independent learning
- awareness of own learning styles & strengths/weaknesses
- vocabulary techniques
- monitoring own learning progress
- setting personal goals for language improvement

28. Process Objectives
Jackson (1993): strategies for effective organization & management of time
-concept of time allocation, assistance to identify realistic times & time spans for home & individual study in learning center, priortizing study time allocation in relation to other activities, assistance to create timetable of study
The English Language Syllabus for teaching primary level (Singapore, 1991)
-See objectives for ‘thinking skills,’ ‘learning how to learn,’ & ‘language & culture’