1. 7. Cultural Influences on Intercultural Communication
Theories of International Tourism

2. 0. Objectives After completing this chapter you should be able to:
Understand the concept of communication
Explain the influence of culture on communication
Identify cultural differences in communication
Understand the concepts of ethnocentrism and stereotyping,
and their influences on communication
Learn about intercultural communication strategies
Identity ethical dilemmas in intercultural communication
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3. Introduction
Cultural differences influence the way people communicate across different cultures. The major cultural differences that affect intercultural communication are in verbal and non-verbal communication.
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4. 1. The concept of communication
Among early communication scholars, communication was defined as a process of conveying information form one person to another.
Since the 1960s, communication theorists have defined communication as the interpretation of meaning through symbols and signs or as a meaning-making process heavily influenced by culture
Lusting and Koester(1993) summarized these (post)modern definitions into a contemporary definition of communications as a ‘symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual process in which people create shared meanings’.
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5. 2. What is intercultural communication?
Intercultural communication is a communication process in which people from different cultures try to understand what others from different cultures try to communicate and what their messages mean.
In a tourism context, hosts want to understand the tourists’ needs and deliver a product tourists want, and tourists want to communicate their needs to hosts to receive the product they want.
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6. 3. Difficulties in intercultural communication
0. Introduction
The difficulties in intercultural communication are caused by cultural differences. Tourists always experience communication difficulties in contact with hosts due to the cultural differences. Cultural differences cause tourist-host friction, misunderstanding, and often hostility.
Items
1. Verbal signals
5. Interaction style
2. Non-verbal signals
6. Values
3. Relationship patterns
7. Time orientation
4. Conversation style
8. Context orientation
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7. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-1. Verbal signals affecting intercultural communication
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Words acknowledge status
Words show respect or disrespect
Japan, China, Korea
Complex cultural references
Multiple words to express culturally significant
Iceland, Japan, China
Customary verbal influences
Contrary meanings emerge (yes means no)
Japan, China
Words versus silence
Importance of words, formal documents
Europe, A-A., Greece,Israel,
Italy, Arabic Countries
Importance of silence and its meaning
Japan, Korea, China, S-Af.,
Swaziland, Zambia, N-Am.
Comments
Comments related to pervious ones
Europe, the United States
Comments not related to ~
Japan
Direct
Explicit verbal messages, use of facts and objectives, direct confrontation, direct expression of one’s own needs, true intentions
N. America, Europe, U.S., African-Americans, Japan, Korea,
Elaborate
Use of metaphors, proverbs and figurative language
Arab and Latin cultures
succinct
Understatement, silence, long pauses, precise expression, precise amount of information necessary, only the absolutely necessary is said, no more, no less (Japanese-American, Chinese-American)
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8. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-2. Non-verbal signals affecting intercultural communication
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Indirect
Implicit indirect messages, focus on mean-
ings, use of body language, and non-verbal cues, ambiguity, use of intermediaries
Middle East, Latin Am., Japan, Korea, China, S-Af.
Af-Am., Thailand
Space (proxemics)
Large physical distance during communication, need for personal space
(N-Europe, N-Am., G.B., U.S., Germany,
Australia,Scotland,Sweden, Germany, Japan, China, U.S, N-Europe, Canada
Small physical distance,
importance of physical intimacy
M-E., Af., L-Am., S-Eu., S-Am., Mediteranean r., Arab c., Indonesia, Mexico
Contract-cultures
People touch each other in social conversations(M-E., L-A., S&E Eu.,
Mexico, Israel, Greece, Eastern Europe
Non-contact cultures
People do not touch each other
(Asia, N-Eu., N-Am., Japan, Germany, U.K.
Scandinavia
Eye gaze
Look directly into the eyes during conversations
Look away, face and other less directly
Europe, U.S,
African-American
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9. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-3. Relationship patterns in communication affecting intercultural communication
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Associative
Importance of the context
C., J., K., V., Me., Latin c.
Contextual
Emphasis on social roles, status, formality, asymmetrical power
Japan, China, India
Lineality
Hierarchical relationship, submission to superiors, obligation to others, social recipro
-city and dependence, importance of status
China, Hong Kong, Thailand, Vietnam, Philippines
Collaterality
Group relationships, group consensus, agreement with group norms
China, Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam
Individualism
Focus on freedom of speech, personal opinion, resolving difficulties, confronting others, human rights, personal position and power, self-references, direct communication, straight talk (U.S, Australia, U.K, Canada, Netherlands, New Zealand, Italy, Belgium, Denmark)
Collectivism
Group orientation, focus on group consensus and decision-making, use of third-party to solve problems and face-saving techniques, group loyalty, personal sacrifice, sense of obligations and responsibilities to others, reciprocation, indirect communication, concern for others
Guatemala, Ecuador, panama, Venezuela, Pakistan, Indonesia, Taiwan, South Korea, Thailand, Singapore
Authoritarianism
Acceptance of leaders and followers
Arab countries, China, Philippines, Indonesia
Personal
Parties to communication most important, informal, less status oriented, human beings center of conservation and action
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10. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-3. Relationship patterns in communication affecting intercultural communication
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Formal
Communication and behavior is performed according to rules of social etiquette, focus on social status differences, titles and appropriate dress
Japan, Latin America, Europe, Asia, Egypt, Turkey, Iran, Germany,
Informal
Little attention is paid to rules of communication and social behavior, no focus on social status, titles and manners (U.S, Australia)
Fragile people bonds
Low involvement and commitment to long-term relationships and communication, rapidly changing group memberships, direct statement of one’s personal needs
(U.S, Australia, U.K, Canada, Netherlands,
New Zealand, Italy,
Belgium, Denmark, Sweden, Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland
Strong people bonds
High and deep commitment between people, importance of group and responsibilities, easy recognition of the in-group members, lack of confrontation, focus on face saving and social harmony
Japan, Korea, Thailand, China
Human nature is good
Communication based on trust
Buddhists
Human nature is evil
Communication based on distrust
Middle East
Human nature is good and evil
Communication based on trust and distrust
Europe
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11. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-4. Conversation style
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Abstractive
Focus on arguments and facts
(Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, U.S)
Affective-intuitive
Involves subjective feelings and emotions instead of facts(China, Japan, Korea, Vietn.
Mexico, L-cultures, Native-Am., Af-Am.
Axiomatic-deductive
Initiated with a broad principle from which deductions and facts follow
Germany,Scandinavia, Switzerland, U.S
Circle logic and thinking
Circle around the topic to imply its domain
(Japan, China, Korea, Vietnam, Mexico,
Latin cul., Native-Am.,
Af-Am, Arbic, Asian
Line logic and linear thinking
Get to the point, clear intentions and explanations of meanings, information is processed in a sequential, segmented, and orderly fashion
U.K, U.S, Germany, Austria, Switzerland, U.S
Linear
Conversation has one theme only, organized with beginning and ending, points and sub-points, evidence stems from logic and empiricism
(the United States, Great Britain)
Nonlinear
Has more than one theme, evidence stems from traditional wisdom and authority, heightened by non-verbal communication, lends itself to relationships and personal interaction, events happen, little is planned
(India, China)
Nonlinear-linear
One central theme with numerous sub-themes, numerous themes portrayed simultaneously, precise beginning and ending, evidence stems from experience, social norms and cultural themes
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12. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-5. Interaction style
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Demonstrative
Emotional, expressive and dynamic (Iran, S-Am., L-Am., S-Europe, Mediterranean region, Arab cultures, African American, Indonesia)
Affective
Emotional, sensitive, intense, dynamic, demonstrative, process oriented, listener, focused (Af-Am., Jordan, Iran, Latino)
Restrained
Modest, passive and reserved (Northern Europe, U.S, Japan, China, Canada, Euroamericans, British)
Exaggerated feelings displayed (Southern Mediterranean area)
Assertive
Aggressive communication style, non-conformity, freedom of expression, directness, taking initiatives in advancing personal interests, disagreement, confrontation, loudness, superficial nature of personal attachments (the United States)
Interpersonal harmony
Avoidance of aggression, confrontation, and criticism, calmness, apologetic and humble attitudes, importance of compensation
(Thailand, Philippines, Japan, China, Malaysia)
Instrumental
Goal oriented, explicit messages, emotional restrained, sender focused
(Euroamericans)
High self-disclosure
Openness, sharing, revealing personal and intimate information about oneself (Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, U.S, Euroamericans)
Low self-disclosure
Not revealing information about oneself
(China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Mexico, Latin cultures,
Native American, Latin American, African American)
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13. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-6. Values affecting intercultural communication
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Mastery of nature
(Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, ’61)
Everything is possible, display of arrogance and power over nature (North America)
Live in harmony with nature
People should live in harmony with nature, display of acceptance and respect to nature (Asia, Native Am.)
Subjugation of nature
We should not try to change destiny, we should accept it, people ruled by nature (India, South America)
Idiologism
Communication should always be set within the context of ideological principles (religious, political, social and legal)
Pragmatism
Precise and practical issues must be addressed to solve problems and achieve concrete results
Masculinity
(Hofstede, ’80, 2001)
Focus on assertiveness, achievement, ambition, inequality, competition, material values
Japan, Hungary, Austria, Venezuela, Italy, Switzerland, Mexico, Ireland, China, U.K, Germany, Colombia, Philippines
Femininity
Focus on cooperation, social accommodation, quality of life, service to others, sympathy for unfortunate, equality intrinsic values (Sweden, Norway, Netherlands
Denmark, Finland, Chile, Portugal, Thailand, Guatamala, South Korea, Spain)
Doing cultures
Focus on activity, accomplishments, change, control, task, completion, goals achievement, getting things done, competition (U.S, Euroamericans)
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14. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-6. Values affecting intercultural communication (continued)
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Being cultures
(Hofstede, ’80, 2001)
Focus on non-action, passivity, acceptance, defensive-
ness, social harmony, taking pleasure in conversation with friends, tolerance, humility, avoidance of open confrontation, spirituality, contemplation, meditation
(Hinduism, Buddhism, Greece, Af-Am, India, Thiland)
Becoming cultures
Belief in evolution and change, spontaneous activity
(Native Am., Europe, Mexico & Latin cultures, S-Am.)
Low uncertainty avoidance
Tolerance for conflict, ambiguity, foreigners with strange behaviors and new ideas, lack of conformity and compromise (Singapore, Denmark, Sweden, H.K.,
U.K, Ireland, Malaysia, India, China, Philippines, U.S, Indonesia, New Zealand, Canada
High uncertainty avoidance
Avoidance of conflict, disagreement, desire for consensus, conformity, security through written rules and procedures, importance of face saving
Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay, Belgium, Poland, Japan, Peru, Argentina,
France, Spain, South Korea, Turkey
Low power distance
Equality, sex roles the same, no social hierarchy
(Austria, Israel, Denmark, New Zealand, Ireland
Sweden, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, U.K, Germany, Australia
High power distance
Social hierarchy and status, autocratic and directive decision-making, separate forms of language for different social classes, formal addressing people
Malaysia, Guatemala, Panama, Philippines., Mexico, Venezuela, China,
Indonesia, India, Singapore
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15. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-7. Time orientation as it affects intercultural communication
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
Monochronism
(Hall ’76, ’77, ’83)
Time is highly organized, linear, segmented, manage- able, task and procedures oriented, importance of appointments and schedules, only one task is under- taken at any time, communication and interaction only with a few individuals at one time, interruptions not acceptable(Germany, Austria, Switzerland, U.S, G.B, Ca)
Polychronism
Time is flexible and open, responsive to the needs of people, several things are being done at the same time, appointments can be broken, deadlines unmet, simul-
taneous interaction with several people, interruption in conversation acceptable, communication style spon-
taneous and unstructured, importance of people
Arabic, Asian & Latin America, Middle East, Africa, S-Europe, Indonesian, Japan
Past orientation
(Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, ’61)
Importance of tradition and previous experience, past should be the guide for conversation, interaction, making decisions and determining truth (China, Japan, Great Britain, Greece, France)
Present orientation
The present is enjoyed and accepted for what it is, what is real exists now, people take pleasure in conversation with friends (Philippines, Mexico, Latin America)
Future orientation
Project orientation, importance of long-term plans, tomorrow is in people’s hands, appreciation of the achievements of science, control over the consequences of own actions (the United States)
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16. Cultural characteristics Countries displaying characteristics
3-8. Context orientation as it affects intercultural communication
Cultural characteristics
Communication
characteristics
Countries displaying characteristics
High-context cultures (HCC)
(Hall, ’76, ’77, ’83;
Kim & Gudykunst, ’88;
Ting-Toomey, ’81)
Covert and implicit
Non-verbal, contextual message
Focus on meanings
Spiral logic
Group orientation
Distinct in-groups and out-groups
Reserved reactions
Non-confrontational attitudes
Face saving and social relationships orientation
Smooth and concealing strategies to elevate conflict, negotiation, reciprocity
China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, Mexico, Latin cultures, Af-Am, Na-Am., Latin Americans
Low-context cultures (LCC)
Overt and explicit
Verbal detailed messages expressed in specific words
Focus on clear intentions and facts
Linear logic
Individualistic orientation
Flexible in-groups and out-groups
Readily observable and explicit reactions
Confrontational attitudes
Action and solution orientation
Direct and controlling strategies to deal with conflict, face-to-face negotiation
Germany, Scandinavia, Switzerland, U.S, North America, France, Sweden, Great Britain
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17. 4. Is intercultural communication possible?
Some differences may cause more problems than others. Others may be very attractive and draw attention.
In order to make sense of the behaviors of those who are culturally different, and understand how to successfully deal with them, deep understanding of the foreign communication rules in needed. This, in turn, requires a broad knowledge of historical, political, economic, religious and educational practices of a foreign culture: the natives’ values, belief, attitudes, and thought patterns.
Real and authentic communication is about the ability to see, acknowledge and respect the difference and uniqueness of other people rather than similarities or commonalities. Real communication is about the ability to see how different people are, so that they can appreciate their own and others’ uniqueness. Real communication is about the ability to open themselves and see multiple identities and perspectives.
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18. 5. Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a belief in one’s own cultural superiority; that the customs, traditions, beliefs and behavioral practices of one’s own culture are better than those of other cultures or at least ought to be. Other cultures are either ignored or treated as inferior.
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19. 6. Stereotyping
Stereotyping refers to the attribution of certain traits, labeling and perceptions of people on the basis of common characteristics, or judgments about others on the basis of their specific characteristics or group memberships.
U.K: US Americans are stereotyped as brash, ignorant, self-centered, and obese.
Germans are stereotyped as aloof, cold, precise, and punctual.
Asian are stereotyped as being ‘exotic’, ancient, spiritual, mystical, and full of ancient wisdom.
Negative stereotypes can create distrust, lead to discrimination, and result in rude and hostile behavior and impede social interaction.
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20. 7. Prejudices
Prejudice is defined as a bias for or against something formed without sufficient basis or being aware of the relevant facts of a case or event.
Allport(1954) developed the Allport’s Scale of Prejudice and Discrimination
That measures the degree of prejudice in a society.
First stage: Antilocution
Second stage: Avoidance
Third stage: Discrimination
Fourth stage: Physical Attack
Fifth stage: Extermination
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21. 8. Racism
Racism is a belief that all members of a particular racial group possess specific characteristics or abilities that distinguish it as being either superior or inferior to another racial group(s).
The term racial discrimination refers to ‘any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, color, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect or nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field or public life’(Part 1 of Article 1 of the United
Nation International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 1966).
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22. 9. Strategies for improving intercultural communication
For intercultural communication to be successful, people need to open themselves to new experiences. They should become more flexible, willing to accept other viewpoints without judging or dismissing them. This kind of openness is very important to those working in the tourism industry.
Tourists and hosts will be more likely to make up their own minds about how new things are.
They will be encouraged to listen more carefully, to study and analyze each other more thoroughly, and to evaluate their own perspectives more thoughtfully.
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23. 10. The ethics of intercultural communication
A decision should be made about how much the tourists and hosts should change their behaviors to fit the beliefs, values and norms of those with whom they interact.
“When in Rome, do as the Romans do.”
Although the potential benefits of intercultural communication and interaction with foreign individuals are great, certain outcomes are negative, for example, excessive consumption of natural resources, development of negative stereotypes or prejudice, or harassment.
Theories of International tourism