1. Chapter 8
Sex and Gender

2. The Hijras of India An ambiguous gender role in India
Though born male, they are considered neither man nor woman
Hijras undergo an operation in which their genitals are surgically removed
The operation is a rebirth
Carried out as an act of devotion to the Hindu Mother Goddess
After the operation, hijras are believed to incorporate the goddess’ powers of procreation
Their presence is required at weddings and at the birth of a child
Present to confer blessings

3. Hijra Identity
Hijras identify with an ambiguous gender role and figure in Hindu mythology
Male deities who change into females temporarily
Deities with both male and female characteristics

4. Beyond Male and Female
Many societies offer cultural support to individuals who bridge gender differences
Societies other than Hindu India:
Mahu of Polynesia
Xanith of Oman on the Saudi Arabian peninsula
Some Native American tribes
Kathoey of Thailand

5. Sex and Gender
Sex - the biological differences between male and female
Gender - the social classification of masculine and feminine
Gender is culturally constructed and extraordinarily diverse
Gender ideology – a society's totality of ideas about sex, gender and the natures of men and women, including their sexuality, and the relations between the genders
Gender Stratification - ways gendered activities and attributes are related to the distribution of resources, prestige, and power in a society

6. Margaret Mead
Developed the central anthropological principle that gender is a cultural construction
Key findings in three New Guinean societies
Arapesh
Both sexes acted in ways Americans consider “feminine”
Mundugamor
Both sexes acted in ways Americans consider “masculine”
Tchambuli
Men acted in ways Americans consider “feminine” and women acted in ways Americans consider “masculine”

7. Bullfighting in Spain
From an emic point of view, bullfighting is an aesthetic ritual expressing male gender value
The ritualized violence is carried out with grace, skill, and courage
The male matador is the central element; he should be able to kill the bull quickly with elegance and poise and distinguish himself as a “man of honor”

8. Rugby In Tonga
Introduced to Tonga (Polynesian sovereign island) in the early 20th century
Now almost all Tongan boys play rugby from early childhood
Rugby is essential in male socialization
It provides skills and the ability to learn resourcefulness
It contains the Tongan male ideals:
Virility
Fortitude
Controlled aggression

9. Sexuality and Homosexuality
Sexual norms affect sexual behavior.
Cultures differ in:
Age that sexuality begins and ends
Ways people make themselves attractive
Importance of sexual activity
Homosexuality
Adolescent boys in Sambia have homosexual relations as part of an initiation, but enter heterosexual marriages as adults
In the United States, consistent heterosexuality is often considered essential to masculine identity

10. Cultural Sexual Behaviors
Cultures vary in what is considered erotic
Before the Tahitians learned to kiss from the Europeans, they began sexual intimacy by sniffing
The Trobriand Islanders inspected each other for lice if they felt fond of each other

11. Ireland: Inis Beag Society
One of the “most sexually naïve of the world’s societies”
Women are expected to “endure” sex
Refusing intercourse is a mortal sin
Culturally patterned sexual repression
Absence of sexual foreplay
Belief that sexual activity weakens men
Absence of premarital sex
High percentage of celibate males
Extraordinarily late age of marriage

12. Polynesia: Mangaia
Adolescent boys are given sexual instruction and an experience with a woman in the village
Practically every girl and boy has had intercourse before marriage
Female frigidity, male celibacy, and homosexuality are practically unknown

13. Male Initiation Rites
Often a form of cultural validation of male dominance
Legitimizing the change in status from child to adult
Involve an extended period of separation
Initiates learn the beliefs, skills, and knowledge necessary to participate as a functioning adult in society

14. Proving Manhood Anthropologist David Gilmore Manhood Puzzle
The widespread male need to publicly test and prove one’s manhood.
Cultural patterns of proving manhood help ensure men will fulfill roles as procreators, providers, and protectors
This is at the heart of the the masculine role and accounts for its intensity, near universality, and persistence

15. Female Initiation Rites
Generally performed at menarche
First menstruation
Occur in more societies than male initiation rites
Research indicates cross-cultural variability
Sometimes the initiate is isolated from society, other times she is the center of attention
Some rituals are elaborate and take years to perform, others are performed with little ceremony

16. Private/Public Dichotomy
Gender system
Women’s status is lowered by their cultural identification with the home and children (private)
Men are identified with prestigious economic and political roles (public)
Emphasizes the degree to which women control the distribution and exchange of goods and services outside the domestic unit

17. Gender Relations in Foraging Societies
Gender relations are egalitarian
Women and men can achieve prestige through their own efforts
Sexual division of labor is not rigid
Women often act as negotiators and hand the money for long-distance trade

18. Tlingit of the Northwest Coast
Pacific Northwest
Some women are heads of clans or tribes
Ideal marriage is between a man and woman of equal rank
Roles are structured based on ability, training, and personality rather than gender

19. Gender Relations in Horticultural Societies
High degree of segregation between the sexes
Myths
Often used to “explain” why women are socially inferior to men and why men and women have different roles

20. Gender Relations in Pastoral and Agricultural Societies
Tend to be male dominated
Though there is some variation
Pastoral societies
Women’s status depends on the degree to which the society combines herding with cultivation, its specific historical situation, and the diffusion of cultural ideas

21. Gender Relations in the Global Economy
Women’s status in modern societies varies and is affected by economic development, political ideology, and globalization
Example: Peru
Mata Chico in the 1930s
The only way for women to get access to land was to marry.
1980s
Peru was urbanized and many occupations were available to men and women
Since women could support themselves and their children, they remained single longer and, in some cases, chose not to marry

22. Gender Relations in the Global Economy
United States
The view that women should be excluded from all but domestic and child rearing roles has historically been culturally dominant
Remains so among many Americans
More women than men may go to medical school, but they tend to take on less prestigious specializations after graduation
Domestic violence and sexual harassment are significant problems based on a cultural pattern that values control over women

23. Violence against Women: the Cultural Defense
An international problem
Domestic violence is considered acceptable in many patriarchal societies even though it is illegal
Patriarchies
Sometimes use the “cultural defense” to explain behavior
United States
The “cultural defense” does not usually work as explanation for violence against women, although at times it has been attempted and anthropologists have been involved
There is some questions about the ethics of anthropological participation in cases such as this

24. You Decide!
Given the dominant anthropological view that culture is diverse, dynamic, multifaceted, and shapes (but does not determine) behavior, what role, if any, do you think the cultural defense should be permitted to play in criminal cases involving domestic violence?
What might be the most effective way of using anthropological expertise to decrease the rate of domestic violence in our own society or other cultures?