1. INTRODUCTION TO ARGUMENTATION

2. Argument Persuasion vs Argument Persuasion has a broader meaning. To persuade means to win over whether by giving reasons, by appealing to emotions or even by using torture. ARGUMENT is one type of Persuasion, the one that relies on reason.

3. Argument Features of an Argument An Argument has three defining features: - it always requires justification of its claims - it is both a process and a product - it combines elements of truth seeking and persuasion. It is a process in which two or more parties seek the best solution to a question or a problem. It may also be viewed as a product, each product being any person’s contribution to the conversation at a given moment. Note: It is not a fight or a mere debate; its aim is to produce the best solution to a certain problem.

4. Writing Arguments Who writes arguments and Why? Media commentators: whenever a certain issue get in the news media commentators (journalist, editorial writers, columnists) write on the issue filtering it through the perspective of their own political views. Professional freelance or staff writers: some of the Think Tanks: because today many political economic and social issues are complex, policy makers and commentators often rely on research institutions or think tanks to supply statistical studies and in-depth investigation of problems. Scholars and academics: college professors, students. Citizens: average citizens influence social policy through letters contributions to advocacy Websites blogs, speeches at public forums, guest editorials for newspapers etc.

5. Writing Arguments Who writes arguments and Why? Lobbyists and advocacy groups: Advocacy groups commit themselves to a cause and produce avidly partisan arguments aimed at persuading voters, legislators, or other targeted decision makers. Legislators, political and governmental officials: whenever new laws regulations or government policies are proposed, staffers do research and write papers recommending positions on an issue. Business professionals: executives and staff writers regularly produce arguments supporting their views for a variety of audiences. Lawyers and judges: many issues have legal dimensions that range from patent disputes to class action lawsuits. Lawyers write briefs supporting their clients’ cases.

6. Shaping Your Argument Classical Argument In traditional Latin terminology, the Classical Argument has the following parts: EXORDIUM – grabs the audience’s attention NARRATIO – provides the needed background PROPOSITIO - which introduces the speaker’s proposition or thesis PARTITIO – which forecasts the main parts of the speech These four components are part of the Introduction.

7. Classical Argument CONFIRMATIO – presents arguments supporting the proposition; it presents the writer’s position, it presents and supports each reason, and each reason is tied to a value or belief held by the audience. CONFUTATIO – refutes the opposing views:  Presents a summary of the opposing views, of the views that differ from those of the writer, and it must be fair and complete; do not distort or omit information  Responds to the opposing views Both constitute the MAIN BODY of the argument.

8. Classical Argument PERORATIO – sums up the argument, brings the essay to closure, leaves a strong last impression, often calls for action or relates the topic to a larger context of issues It corresponds to the CONCLUSION of the argument.

9. Arguments take place in a specific social, or rhetorical context of communication, which is often depicted as a triangle in which the corners, representing the Message, its Writer/Speaker, and Audience, all center on a common subject matter. Message Subject Matter Writer/SpeakerAudience

10. Effective arguments consider all three points of this triangle, and often, if you change one point, you need to alter also the other points. Also, each point on the triangle corresponds to one of the three kinds of persuasive appeals that ancient rhetoricians named: Logos, Ethos and Pathos. Logos EthosPathos

11. LOGOS: (word) – refers to the internal consistency and clarity of the message and to the logic of its reasons and support. The impact of Logos on the audience is referred to as its Logical Appeal. ETHOS: (character) - refers to the credibility of the writer or speaker. Ethos is conveyed through the tone and style of the argument, arrangement of reasons, through the care with which the writer considers alternative views. It is also a function of the writer’s reputation for honesty and expertise. The impact of Ethos on the audience is referred to as Ethical Appeal or appeal from credibility. Pathos: (suffering, experience) – appeals to the audience’s feelings, sympathies, values, beliefs and imagination. It is referred to as Pathetic Appeal or emotional appeal.

12. KAIROS – The Timeliness and Fitness of Arguments To increase your argument’s effectiveness, you need to consider also its timing, its appropriateness for the occasion. It means the right time, opportunity, season, not Chronos, which you can measure by just looking at your watch. KAIROS is measured through sensing the opportune time, through psychological attentiveness to situation and meaning. Ramage and Johnson Writing Arguments; Barnet and Bedau Current Issues