1. 300 B.C. E- 1200 C.E

4. Worksheet on Chapter 8 is due tomorrow. Feel free to fill it out as you take notes and we discuss Chapter 8.

5.  Time period: approx. 450–1450 C.E.  Emergence of an “international framework”  Civilization begins to spread geographically, now covering many parts of the world not previously embraced by human organization  Several new civilizations/areas share key characteristics (ex: eastern & western Europe are primarily Christian societies)  Era defined by the spread of major religions across much of Asia, Europe, & Africa ◦ Hinduism = majority religion in India ◦ Buddhism spread to China & parts of central and east Asia (including Japan) ◦ Islam spreads across the Middle East and Northern Africa; also a “minority religion” in India, western China, & Sub- Saharan Africa

6.  Shift from polytheism to monotheism  Growth in international trade (Trade routes in Chapter 7)  Technology and ideas spread ◦ Due to growing trade, military encounters, and redefining of boundaries within civilizations  Variety of political forms ◦ But no single, dominant political form

8. Trade and Interaction of Commerce (Aromatics to Manufactured goods) “Empty Quarter”  Byzantines to the North  Sasanids (Persians) to the East  Arab pastoralists to south isolated ◦ Where Islam emerges

9. Page 218 Rise of Mecca

10.  Creation of a new empire in the “Middle East” and North Africa, as well as parts of India, south Europe, and central Asia  Islam – submission; self-surrender of the believer to the will of the one  Muslims – followers of the new faith (Islam) and its prophet (Muhammad)  Muslim traders & conquerors became the prime agents for the transfer of food crops, technology, and ideas among the many centers of civilization in the Eastern Hemisphere  Muslims had works in philosophy, literature, mathematics, and science  Quran – the holy book containing Allah’s revelations to Muhammad

11.  Islamic world:  unified by a common allegiance to the religious teachings of Muhammad and to some extent by the Arabic language  divided by political rivalries, cultural & linguistic diversity, and religious sectarianism (excessive devotion to a particular sect, especially in religion)

12.  Empire of Faith: Muhammad and Rise of Islam Empire of Faith: Muhammad and Rise of Islam

13.  But Arabia is a crossroads of three continents – Africa, Europe and Asia – perfectly placed along major ocean and land trade routes.

14.  Supplied by underground springs or small rivers, oases were dotted by date palms and became the sites of towns that attracted caravans so that camels could be watered and traders fed and rested in the shade.  With their concentrated wealth, food and water, oases were often targeted by Bedouin raiders.

15.  Bedouin tribe were nomads who lived in the desert.  After the camel was domesticated in the second century BCE, Bedouins began participating in the caravan trade themselves, becoming major carriers of goods between the Persian Gulf and the Mediterranean Sea.  Each tribe – ruled by a sheikh, chosen from a leading family by a council of elders – was autonomous but felt a general sense of allegiance to the larger unity of all the clans in the region.

16.  The supreme deity was symbolized by a sacred stone, and each tribe claimed its own stone.  But by the time of Muhammad (570-632), a massive black meteorite – housed in a central shrine called the Ka’ba in the commercial city of Mecca – had come to possess especially sacred qualities. The Ka’ba is the most sacred site of the Islamic faith. Wherever Muslims pray, they are instructed to face Mecca … to thus become a spoke of the Ka’ba, the holy center of the wheel of Islam. All Muslims are encouraged to visit the Ka’ba at least once in their lifetime.

17.  Born around 570 C.E.  Lived in Mecca during his adolescence  Lived/worked as a trader and traveler ◦ Helps him see religious currents sweeping through Arabia, especially the idea of monotheism and a growing dissatisfaction of the old gods.  Was socially prominent, economically well off, and admired for his trading skills and trustworthiness  Became dissatisfied with life and distracted with a life that focused on material gains.  Around 610 C.E. he received his first “revelation” ◦ His following/followers were a small group at first (his wife, several clans people, and some servants and slaves).  Eventually has to flee Mecca due to threats from the Umayyads and other clans

18.  622 C.E. – secures safe passage from Mecca to Medina (Hijra) ◦ Given a “hero’s welcome” when in Medina  Series of attacks in Medina in mid 620’s C.E. ◦ Signed treaty w/ the Quraysh (Big on trading)clan in 628 C.E.  His preaching/teaching would lead to a new form of monotheism ◦ This new religion would provide an ethical system that healed deep social rifts within Arabian society ◦ Islam stresses the dignity of all believers and their equality in the eyes of Allah (God). ◦ Led to Umma (community defined solely by acceptance of Islam/Muhammad as “Messenger of God.”

19.  Completed in Jerusalem in 691, the Dome of the Rock marks a convergence of Islam and Judaism.  The rock is where Muslims say Muhammad ascended to heaven to learn of Allah’s will before returning to Earth to spread the message.  Situated on the site of the Jewish temple destroyed by the Romans in 70 CE, the exact same spot is where Jews say Abraham was prepared to sacrifice his son Isaac.

20.  Muhammad’s victory over the Umayyad tribe and resulting allegiance of Bedouin tribes of Arabia creates a new center of power in the Middle East.  Muhammad suddenly died in 632 ◦ Appeared that the Islam religion would disappear. ◦ Internal disputes among clans/tribes  Umayyads emerge as the dominating force in the Islamic community  Under Umayyad rule, Arabs built a vast empire ◦ This established the foundations for an enduring civilization until its fall in mid-8 th Century  Most of Arabia was united under Islam by 633 ◦ Begin to mount expeditions beyond Arabian borders ◦ Conquests in Mesopotamia, North Africa, and Persia ◦ This empire was considered “Arab” and not “Islamic”; led by the Umayyads.

21.  Favored successor (Khalifa/Caliph) for Muhammad…Caliphate  Purpose and ability is unclear beyond the maintaining of the umma  Bakr did consolidate the following ◦ Strong in continuing the 5 pillars of Islam ◦ Re-established and expanded Muslim authority over Arabia’s nomadic/settled communities ◦ Organized Muhammad’s revelations in a book (Quran) Unalterable word of God

22. Uncompromising Monotheism; highly developed legal codes; egalitarianism (belief in equality of all people); strong sense of community. “5 Pillars of Islam” 1. confession of faith 2. pray 5 times a day facing the city of Mecca 3. fast during the month of Ramadan 4. tithe for charity (payment of charity called a zakat) strengthened the community and cohesion 5. hajj, or pilgrimmage to the holy city of Mecca to worship Allah at the Ka’Ba

23.  Every Muslim is expected to worship Allah directly, so Islam has no priests or central religious authority … though it does have a scholar class called the ulama (oo-leh-MAH), which drew up a law code called the sharia, to provide believers with a set of prescriptions for regulating their daily lives.  The sharia combines the guidance from the Quran and Muhammad’s example for the proper way of living (including the Hadith, a collection of his sayings which supplement the holy scriptures), which could be very strict: Muslims were forbidden to gamble, to eat pork, to drink alcohol … contacts between unmarried men and women were discouraged, and marriages were to be arranged ideally by the parents.

24.  The sharia also offered precise guidance on family life, inheritance, slavery, business transactions, crime and political authority in the dar al-Islam (a term used to refer to those lands under Muslim government).  Thus, Islamic holy law developed into something more than religious doctrine: a complete social and ethical framework for living.  Interestingly, the historical analysis of the Quran remains hampered by the fact that the earliest known versions of it lack the diacritical marks that modern Arabic uses to clarify meaning  so much of the text can be interpreted in varying ambiguous ways.

25.  Following Muhammad’s death, Muslims saw no separation between political and religious authority … and so what would become the Islamic Empire was a theocracy.  Muslims have never agreed whether he named a successor, and although he had several daughters, he left no sons  in male-oriented society of the day, that left the question: Who would lead the community of the faithful?  Closest followers selected Abu Bakr, a wealthy merchant from Medina and Muhammad’s father-in- law, as the first caliph (khalifa, literally “successor”).  Caliph – temporal leader of the Islamic community as well as religious leader, or imam  rule known as caliphate.

26.  Caliph – the political and religious successor to Muhammad. ◦ First caliph to succeed Muhammad was Abu Bakr (632-634) ◦ He received no financial support from Muslim community and his mandate was limited ◦ Only loosely controlled military commanders  Islamic peoples defeated bedouin tribes one after the other. ◦ These victories are known as the Ridda Wars ◦ Initial victories revealed vulnerability of the Byzantine & Persian Empires. Sasanian/Persian empire was the weaker of the two. ◦ Former guardians of Byzantine & Persian empires now joined the Arabian empire  Motives for Arab Conquests: ◦ Unity provided by Islamic faith gave them a common cause and strength ◦ Campaigns of expansion and rich farmlands of other territories ◦ To glorify their new religion (Islam) ◦ Desire for looting other tribes’ materials/wealth ◦ Release the energy of other bedouin tribes against each other

27.  Muhammad had used the tribal custom of the razzia, or raid, in struggling with his enemies, and now Abu Bakr and his three elected successors (Umar, Uthman and Ali – all associates of Muhammad and together known as the “rightly guided” caliphs) used the same custom to quell factional Bedouin tendencies and expand the Islamic movement.  This is known as jihad, or “striving in the way of the Lord,” (an inner struggle against evil) though it’s sometimes translated as “holy war” (armed struggle against unbelievers).

28.  The armies under the “rightly guided” caliphs made great progress in fulfilling Muhammad’s desire to expand the Islamic faith northward, conquering by 661 Syria and lower Egypt, which were part of the Byzantine Empire, and parts of the Sassanid Empire of Persia.  Several reasons explain the success:  highly motivated Muslims believed dying in battle guaranteed place in paradise.  armies were well disciplined and expertly commanded.  Byzantine and Sassanid empires were weakening.

29.  those persecuted under the empires to the north (i.e., Byzantines not supporting the official religion of Christianity and Persians not supporting Zoroastrianism) welcomed the Muslim invaders and were attracted by the appeal of the message of Islam, which offered equality and hope in this world.  the Quran forbade forced conversion  Christians and Jews seen as “people of the book” and received special consideration … paid a poll tax each year in exemption from military duties.  although non-Muslim lives were restricted in some ways (e.g., Christians and Jews could not spread their religions), Muslim conquerors treated their new subjects in a fairly tolerant fashion for the day.

30.  Success of the Muslim armies and their expansion of the Arab empire diverted attention from rivalries/division within the Islamic community (inter-tribe rivalries)  Growing tension among groups broke into violence in 656 CE when the 3 rd caliph, Uthman, was murdered. ◦ *He was unpopular among many tribes because he was elected caliph by the Umayyad clan (Muhammad’s rivals). ◦ Ali was proclaimed by supporters to be the next caliph; Umayyad’s rejected this claim.  this leads to warfare between the groups.  Ali: ◦ Famous warrior and commander ◦ After victory at Battle of the Camel in 656, most Arab’s shifted support to him against the Umayyad’s. ◦ *Eventually assassinated by Umayyad’s after early victories against them  Split into two groups (Sunnis & Shi’ites): ◦ Sunnis – supporters of the Umayyads (People of Tradition and Community) ◦ Shi’ites – supporters of Ali  Still a major fundamental conflict in the Islamic world TODAY!

31.  Jihads - holy wars launched to forcibly (force) spread the Muslim faith  *Arabs did NOT want to convert a large number of people to Islam because they would have to share the wealth they acquired and also lost tax revenue*  By 650 CE, Arab invaders eventually would be able to take over most of: Palestine, Egypt, Syria, and western Iraq  Even though the Byzantine empire survived for many centuries to come, it was constantly under siege and greatly reduced its power.

32.  Continued Arab expansion  launched new attacks at both ends of Mediterranean world in early 8th century.  armies moved across North Africa, conquering the primarily pastoral Berbers before crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and occupying southern Spain. By 725 most of Iberian peninsula had become a Muslim state, with its center in Andalusia … but seven years later, an Arab force pushing into southern France was fought back by the Franks (with an army commanded by Charles Martel) at the Battle of Tours  traditionally viewed as saving Europe from falling into Muslim hands, but some historians believe internal exhaustion would have forced retreat anyway.

33.  Muslim armies started a rivalry with Buddhism in central Asia…rivalry still continues TODAY!  By early 700’s, Umayyad’s empire ruled from Spain to central Asia (largest empire since the Romans!)  Mecca still remained the “holy city” of Islam, but the Umayyad’s shifted their political center to the city of Damascus (located in Syria)  *Only Muslim-Arabs were considered “first class citizens” of this empire.

34.  Mawali – converts to Muslim ◦ Were forced to pay property taxes ◦ Number of converts was low due to taxes  Dhimmis – people of the book (the Bible)  Umayyad’s were tolerant of other religions (Christians and Jews) as long as they paid their jizya (a tax for non-Muslims)

35.  Many Umayyad warriors settled far away from Damascus (political center of Umayyad). ◦ Resent authority from far away ◦ Warriors also not given their share of the wealth captured by the empire ◦ Saw the Damascus elite as corrupt  Revolt started when new warriors were introduced by Umayyad officials  Former Umayyad warriors formed alliance with groups that resisted Umayyad rule. ◦ Also were allies with Shi’ites and the mawali (not fully recognized as Muslim)  *This diverse group of rebels captured Persia and Iraq and eventually conquered Syria (including the Umayyad capital of Damascus).

36.  Abbasids are the next major group to take over Islamic civilization. ◦ Abbasids lead to a bureaucratic expansion. ◦ Admitted converted Muslims as FULL members of the Islamic community ◦ This results in Islam becoming a universal faith (from Spain to the Philippine Islands) instead of a religion for a few elite groups.  Built new capital in Baghdad (Iraq)  Bureaucratization of Islamic Empire is shown in the growing power of the wazir – chief administrator and head of the caliph’s inner councils.  Distinctions between the mawali and first generation Muslims disappeared. ◦ Most converts were won over peacefully now  exempt from paying a tax  “Abbasid Age” was a time of great urban expansion due to the revival of the Afro-Eurasian trade network.

37.  Into this mix moved the Saljuq Turks, a nomadic people from Central Asia who had converted to Islam and flourished as military mercenaries for the Abbasid caliphate.  They moved gradually into Iran and Armenia, and by the mid-11th century had occupied the eastern provinces of the Abbasid empire.  In 1055, a Turkish leader captured Baghdad and assumed command of the empire with the title of sultan (“holder of power”).  The Abbasid caliph remained the chief representative of Sunni religious authority, but the real military and political power rested in the hands of the Saljuq Turks.

38.  Women in pre-Islamic bedouin culture enjoyed greater freedom and higher status compared to other civilized centers [Byzantine and Sasanian (Persian) empires]. ◦ Did NOT wear veils and were NOT secluded…at this point in time ◦ Women’s advice was highly regarded ◦ Women AND men were both sometimes allowed to have multiple marriage partners ◦ Still NOT considered equal to men though. ◦ Women’s status varied from one clan/family to the next.

39. Muslim culture Muslim Culture City life Society Arts and literature Science and math Muslims combined and preserved the traditions of many peoples and also advanced learning in a variety of areas. House of Wisdom

40.  Much has been written about the cosmopolitan, urban aspects of the Muslim civilization. As a point of comparison, around 900 CE Baghdad’s population approached 1 million when Rome’s once-comparable population had plummeted to less than 50,000 … and when Cordoba had hit 200,000, Paris stood at just 38,000.  Much of this had to do with the centrality of the Muslims to the thriving interregional trade network.  To encourage the flow of trade, Muslim money changers in cities throughout the empire set up banks, which issued letters of credit called sakks (sakk was pronounced in Europe as “check”). Thus a Muslim merchant in India didn’t have to carry around vast sums of money but instead could cash a check drawn on his bank in Baghdad.

41.  The growth of cities also came from:  the introduction of new crops from the east – everything from sugarcane and rice to eggplants and mangoes.  improved agricultural methods, which increased the food supply and improved diets.  Cities became home to industrial production, such as textiles (thanks to the introduction of cotton from India), pottery, glassware, leather (the importance of which to pre-modern societies cannot be overstated), iron and steel.  Paper manufacturing also became important to urban centers as records were increasingly complex (the technology was introduced to the Arab world after Chinese prisoners of war were taken in 751).

42.  Baghdad’s multicultural population was typical of Muslim cities of the 8th and 9th centuries. It was made up of four classes: 1) upper class included those born Muslim; 2) the second class were converts to Islam; 3) third were “protected people” including Christians and Jews; and 4) the lowest class consisted of slaves, all non-Muslim and most prisoners of war working as domestic servants or military warriors. The role of women: Although the Quran and sharia established a patriarchal society, in many ways Muslim women had more economic and property rights than European, Indian and Chinese women. They were seen as honorable individuals, not property, and equal to men before Allah.

43.  Muhammad stressed learning and scholarship, and both the Umayyads and Abbasids preserved and expanded scientific and philosophical knowledge  at House of Wisdom, a library- academy-translation center in Baghdad, scholars of different cultures and beliefs worked side by side translating texts from Greece, India, Persia and elsewhere into Arabic. Muslim scholars made advancements in astronomy, optics, chemistry, math and medicine. Among other things, they preserved and later passed on to Europeans the classical heritage of Greek thinkers.

44.  Studying the skies was needed to get a correct lunar calendar for marking religious periods such as the month of Ramadan, and it helped fix the locations of cities so that worshippers could face toward Mecca.  Muslims were aware the earth was round centuries before European mariners proved it.  Islamic scholars adopted and passed on the numerical system of India, and a 9th-century Persian mathematician founded the discipline of algebra (al-jabr). The astrolabe was an early scientific instrument that could calculate time, celestial events and relative position.

45.  The art of Islam is a blend of Arab, Turkish and Persian traditions.  Arabs developed a sense of rhythm and abstraction  repetitive geometric ornamentation.  Turks  abstraction in figurative and nonfigurative designs.  Persians added lyrical, poetical mysticism. The famous 9th-century mosque in Cordoba – with its 514 columns supporting double horseshoe arches – is considered one of the wonders of world art and architecture.

46.  Arabic was the language of religion, theology, philosophy and law, but Persian was the principal language of literature, poetry, history and political reflection.  Poet Omar Khayyam (Rubaiyat) didn’t write down his poems, but rather composed them orally over wine with friends at a neighborhood tavern (many later transcribed years after his death). Key themes: impermanence of life, impossibility of knowing God, disbelief in afterlife  more popular among modern skeptics in the West than in Middle East. Geometric designs can be found in everything from poetry to architecture. The art of beautiful, ornamental handwriting – or calligraphy – developed because Muslims believed only Allah can create life … so images of living things were discouraged.

47.  The Arabian Nights (or The Thousand and One Nights) was a collection of folk tales, fables and romances from India and Persia that Muslims elaborated upon beginning in 10th century.  Translations became popular in 19th century as Western readers developed taste for stories set in exotic locales.  Story of Aladdin and the Magic Lamp was an 18th- century addition.  Clip: Merchant and The GenieMerchant and The Genie

48.  Arab/Islamic Empire became on of the greatest civilizations of the preindustrial world.  *The first truly “global” civilization  *Built their religion on earlier traditions of Christianity and Judaism  Umayyad caliphs (661 – 750 CE)  Umayyad rule ◦ First example of religious legitimacy to be used to build a powerful, absolute political order/structure.  Achievements in Arts & Sciences – relied heavily on achievements of Greece and Mesopotamian civilizations.  Never before had a civilization combined so many linguistic groups, religions, and ethnic types.