1. Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services9
Sustaining Biodiversity: Saving Species and Ecosystem Services

2. Core Case Study: Where Have All the Honeybees Gone?
Bees play a key role in pollination
Globally, about one third of the food supply comes from insect-pollinated plants
Currently, agriculture depends heavily on a single species of bee
Suffering from Colony Collapse Disorder
Each year, 30-50% of colonies in Europe and the U.S.

3. Honeybee Figure 9-1: European honeybee drawing nectar from a flower.
Fig. 9-1, p. 190

4. 9-1 What Role Do Humans Play in the Loss of Species and Ecosystem Services?
Species are becoming extinct 100 to 1,000 times faster than they were before modern humans arrived on the earth
By the end of this century, the extinction rate is expected to be 10,000 times higher than that background rate

5. Extinctions Are Natural but Sometimes They Increase Sharply
Biological extinction
No species member alive
Trophic cascade
Population declines or extinctions among connected species
Mass extinction
Many species in a short amount of time

6. Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions and Threaten Ecosystem Services
Background extinction rate
1 extinct species / year / 1 million species
Extinction rates have risen recently
Current extinction rate is at least 100 times higher than typical background rate of %

7. Some Human Activities Hasten Extinctions and Threaten Ecosystem Services (cont’d.)
Rate of extinction and threats to ecosystem services likely to rise sharply in the next years
Due to harmful human impacts
Biodiversity hotspots
Extinction rates projected to be much higher than average
Biologically diverse environments are being eliminated or fragmented

8. Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms
Endangered species
So few members that the species could soon become extinct
Threatened species (vulnerable species)
Still enough members to survive, but numbers declining
May soon be endangered

9. Endangered and Threatened Species Are Ecological Smoke Alarms (cont’d
Regionally extinct
In areas a species is normally found
Functionally extinct
To the point at which species can no longer play a functional role in the ecosystem

10. Figure 9-2: Endangered natural capital: These four critically endangered species are threatened with extinction, largely because of human activities. The number below each photo indicates the estimated total number of individuals of that species remaining in the wild, as of 2012.
Fig. 9-2, p. 193

11. 41% Amphibians Conifers 30% 25% Mammals Birds 13%
Figure 9-3 Endangered natural capital: Comparison of the percentages of various types of known species that are threatened with extinction hastened by human activities (Concept 9-1). Question: Why do you think so many of the world’s amphibians are threatened with extinction?
Birds
13%
Fig. 9-3, p. 194

12. Characteristic Examples
Low reproductive rate
Blue whale, giant panda, rhinoceros
Characteristic
Examples
Specialized niche
Blue whale, giant panda, Everglades kite
Narrow distribution
Elephant seal, desert pupfish
Feeds at high trophic level
Bengal tiger, bald eagle, grizzly bear
Fixed migratory patterns
Blue whale, whooping crane, sea turtle
Rare
African violet, some orchids
Figure 9-4: Certain characteristics can put a species in greater danger of becoming extinct.
Commercially valuable
Snow leopard, tiger, elephant, rhinoceros, rare plants and birds
Large territories
California condor, grizzly bear, Florida panther
Stepped Art
Fig. 9-4, p. 194

13. 9-2 Why Should We Care about the Rising Rate of Species Extinction?
We should avoid speeding up the extinction of wild species because:
Of the ecosystem and economic services they provide
It can take millions of years for nature to recover from large-scale extinctions
Many people believe that species have a right to exist regardless of their usefulness to us

14. Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital
Major reasons to prevent extinctions
Species provide vital ecosystem services
Help keep us alive and support our economies
Many species also contribute economic services
Plants for food, fuel, lumber, and medicine
Ecotourism

15. Species Are a Vital Part of the Earth’s Natural Capital (cont’d.)
It will take 5-10 million years to regain species biodiversity after this century’s extinctions
Many people believe species have an intrinsic right to exist
How do we decide which species to protect?

16. Figure 9-5: Natural capital degradation
Figure 9-5: Natural capital degradation. These endangered orangutans depend on a rapidly disappearing tropical forest habitat. Question: What difference will it make if human activities hasten the extinction of the orangutan?
Fig. 9-5, p. 194

17. Pacific yew Taxus brevifolia, Pacific Northwest Ovarian cancer
Rosy periwinkle Cathranthus roseus, Madagascar Hodgkin's disease, lymphocytic leukemia
Rauvolfia
Rauvolfia sepentina, Southeast Asia Anxiety, high blood pressure
Figure 9-6: Natural capital. These plant species are examples of nature’s pharmacy. Once the active ingredients in the plants have been identified, scientists can usually produce them synthetically. The active ingredients in nine of the ten leading prescription drugs originally came from wild organisms.
Neem tree
Azadirachta indica, India Treatment of many diseases, insecticide, spermicides
Foxglove
Digitalis purpurea, Europe Digitalis for heart failure
Cinchona
Cinchona ledogeriana, South America Quinine for malaria treatment
Fig. 9-6, p. 196

18. Figure 9-7: Many species of wildlife such as this endangered hyacinth macaw in Mato Grosso, Brazil, are sources of beauty and pleasure. It is endangered because of habitat loss and illegal capture in the wild by pet traders.
Fig. 9-7, p. 196

19. 9-3 How Are We Threatening Species and Ecosystem Services?
The greatest threats to any species are (in order):
Loss or degradation of its habitat
Harmful invasive species
Human population growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation

20. Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species: Remember HIPPCO
Habitat destruction, degradation, and fragmentation
Invasive (nonnative) species
Population and resource use growth
Pollution
Climate change
Overexploitation

21. Loss of Habitat Is the Single Greatest Threat to Species (cont’d.)
Habitat fragmentation
Large intact habitat divided by roads, crops, and urban development
National parks and nature reserves as habitat islands

22. Indian Tiger
Range 100 years ago
Range today
Black Rhino
Range in 1700
Range today
African Elephant
Probable range 1600
Range today
Asian or Indian Elephant
Former range
Range today
Figure 9-8: Natural capital degradation: These maps reveal the reductions in the ranges of four wildlife species, mostly as the result of severe habitat loss and fragmentation and illegal hunting for some of their valuable body parts. Question: Would you support expanding these ranges even though this would reduce the land available for human habitation and farming? Explain.
Stepped Art
Fig. 9-8, p. 198

23. We Have Moved Disruptive Species into Some Ecosystems
Many species introductions are beneficial
Nonnative species may have no natural:
Predators, competitors, parasites, pathogens
Nonnative species can crowd out native species
Invasive species

24. Deliberately introduced species
Purple loosestrife
European starling
African honeybee (“Killer bee”)
Nutria
Salt cedar (Tamarisk)
Marine toad (Giant toad)
Water hyacinth
Japanese beetle
Hydrilla
European wild boar (Feral pig)
Accidentally introduced species
Sea lamprey (attached to lake trout)
Argentina fire ant
Brown tree snake
Eurasian ruffe
Common pigeon (Rock dove)
Formosan termite
Zebra mussel
Asian long-horned beetle
Asian tiger mosquito
Gypsy moth larvae
Figure 9-9: These are some of the estimated 7,100 harmful invasive species that have been deliberately or accidentally introduced into the United States.
Stepped Art
Fig. 9-9, p. 199

25. Case Study: The Kudzu Vine and Kudzu Bugs
Imported from Japan in the 1930s
Help control soil erosion
Very difficult to kill
Could there be benefits of kudzu?
Kudzu bug – imported from Japan
Can kill Kudzu vine
Also kills soybeans

26. Figure 9-10: Kudzu has grown over this car in the U. S
Figure 9-10: Kudzu has grown over this car in the U.S. state of Georgia.
Fig. 9-10, p. 200

27. Some Accidentally Introduced Species Can Disrupt Ecosystems
Argentina fire ant – introduced in the 1930s
Reduced populations of native ants
Painful stings can kill
Pesticide spraying in 1950s and 1960s worsened conditions
Tiny parasitic flies may help control fire ants

28. Case Study: Burmese Pythons Are Eating Their Way through the Florida Everglades
Accidentally introduced
Reproduce rapidly and are hard to kill
Greatly depleted Everglades populations of:
Rabbits, foxes, raccoons, opossums, and deer

29. Figure 9-11: University of Florida researchers hold a 4
Figure 9-11: University of Florida researchers hold a 4.6-meter-long (15-foot-long), 74-kilogram (162-pound) Burmese python captured in Everglades National Park shortly after it had eaten a 1.8-meter-long (6-foot-long) American alligator.
Fig. 9-11, p. 201

30. Prevention Is the Best Way to Reduce Threats from Invasive Species
Research programs identifying invaders
Establishing international treaties banning transfer between countries
Public education about exotic pets and plants
What else can be done to prevent invasive species?

31. Figure 9-12: Individuals matter
Figure 9-12: Individuals matter. Here are some ways to prevent or slow the spread of harmful invasive species. Questions: Which two of these actions do you think are the most important to take? Why? Which of these actions do you plan to take?
Fig. 9-12, p. 202

32. Other Causes of Species Extinctions
Human population growth and overconsumption
Degrading habitat
Pollution
Bioaccumulation can cause extinctions of species not directly affected by pollution
Climate change
Some species will become extinct, some will spread

33. DDT in fish-eating birds (ospreys)
25 ppm
DDT in large fish (needle fish)
2 ppm
DDT in small fish (minnows)
0.5 ppm
DDT in zooplankton 0.04 ppm
Figure 9-13: Bioaccumulation and biomagnification: DDT is a fat-soluble chemical that can accumulate in the fatty tissues of animals. In a food chain or web, the accumulated DDT is biologically magnified in the bodies of animals at each higher trophic level, as it was in the case of a food chain in the U.S. state of New York, illustrated here. (Dots in this figure represent DDT.) Question: How does this story demonstrate the value of pollution prevention?
DDT in water ppm, or 3 ppt
Stepped Art
Fig. 9-13, p. 202

34. Case Study: Polar Bears and Climate Change
Live only in the Arctic
Arctic ice is melting
Decreasing polar bear habitat
Polar bears must swim farther between ice
Weaker females; less reproduction

35. Figure 9-14: On floating ice in Svalbard, Norway, a polar bear feeds on its ringed seal prey. Question: Do you think it matters that the polar bear may become extinct during this century primarily because of human activities? Explain.
Fig. 9-14, p. 204

36. Illegal Killing, Capturing, and Selling of Wild Species Threatens Biodiversity
Poaching and smuggling of animals and plants
Animal parts
Pets
Plants for landscaping and enjoyment
Prevention
Research and education

37. Figure 9-15: A poacher in South Africa killed this critically endangered northern white rhinoceros for its two horns. This species is now extinct in the wild. With a rhino horn worth up to $300,000 on the Asian black market, thieves have been stealing the horns from museums, antique stores, and even private collections. Question: What would you say if you could talk to the poacher who killed this animal for its horns?
Fig. 9-15, p. 205

38. A Rising Demand for Bushmeat Threatens Some African Species
West and Central African wild animals
Supply major cities with exotic meats
Hunting has driven one species to extinction
Miss Waldron’s red colobus monkey
Threatened species:
Monkeys, apes, antelope, elephants, and hippos

39. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds
70% of the world’s bird species are declining
Habitat loss and fragmentation of the birds’ breeding habitats
Forests cleared for farms, lumber plantations, roads, and development
Intentional or accidental introduction of nonnative species
These species eat the birds

40. Case Study: A Disturbing Message from the Birds (cont’d.)
Exposure to pesticides
Overexploitation
For pets
Birds are indicator species
Respond quickly to environmental changes
Birds perform critical ecosystem and economic services
Extinctions could affect many other species

41. Figure 9-17: Endangered natural capital: This endangered Attwater’s prairie chicken lives in a wildlife refuge in the U.S. state of Texas.
Fig. 9-17, p. 206

42. 9-4 How Can We Sustain Wild Species and Their Ecosystem Services?
We can reduce species extinction and sustain ecosystem services by:
Establishing and enforcing national environmental laws and international treaties
Creating protected wildlife sanctuaries
Taking precautionary measures to prevent such harm

43. International Treaties and National Laws Help to Protect Species
1975 – Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES)
Signed by 172 countries
Convention on Biological Diversity (BCD)
Focuses on ecosystems
Ratified by 190 countries (not the U.S.)

44. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act
Endangered Species Act (ESA) – and later amended in 1982, 1985, and 1988
Identify and protect endangered species in the U.S. and abroad
National Marine Fisheries Service for ocean species
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for all others

45. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (cont’d.)
Forbids federal agencies (except Defense) from funding or authorizing projects that jeopardize endangered or threatened species
In 2012, 1,394 species officially listed
Offer incentives to private property owners to help

46. Case Study: The U.S. Endangered Species Act (cont’d.)
Is the ESA a failure?
Species are listed only when in serious danger
Conditions for more than half of listed species are stable or improving
Budget is about 57 cents per U.S. citizen

47. Figure 9-19: The American bald eagle has been removed from the U. S
Figure 9-19: The American bald eagle has been removed from the U.S. endangered species list. Here, an eagle is about to catch a fish in its powerful talons.
Fig. 9-19, p. 209

48. We Can Establish Wildlife Refuges and Other Protected Areas
In 1903, Theodore Roosevelt established the first federal wildlife refuge
Pelican Island, Florida
Wildlife refuges
Most are wetland sanctuaries
More needed for endangered plants
Are not immune from disturbance

49. Figure 9-20: The Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge in Florida was America’s first National Wildlife Refuge.
Fig. 9-20, p. 210

50. Seed Banks, Botanical Gardens, and Wildlife Farms Can Help Protect Species
Preserve genetic material of endangered plants
Botanical gardens and arboreta
Living plants
Farms can raise organisms for commercial sale

51. Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species
Techniques for preserving endangered terrestrial species
Egg pulling
Captive breeding
Artificial insemination
Embryo transfer
Use of incubators
Cross-fostering

52. Zoos and Aquariums Can Protect Some Species (cont’d.)
Goal of ultimately releasing/reintroducing populations to the wild
Limited space and funds

53. Figure 9-21: The Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California (USA), contains this tidewater pool, which is used to train rescued sea otter pups to survive in the wild.
Fig. 9-21, p. 211

54. Figure 9-22: Individuals matter: You can help to prevent the extinction of species. Questions: Which two of these actions do you believe are the most important? Why?
Fig. 9-22, p. 212

55. The Precautionary Principle
Act to prevent or reduce harm when preliminary evidence indicates acting is needed
Species are the primary components of biodiversity
Should we focus on the preservation of species or the preservation of ecosystems?

56. Case Study: Protecting Honeybees and Other Pollinators
Failure to protect honeybees
Loss of vital ecosystem services
Farmers are:
Breeding bees resistant to harmful parasitic mites and fungi
Raising their own colonies
Improving bee nutrition

57. Three Big Ideas
We are hastening the extinction of wild species and degrading the ecosystem services they provide by:
Destroying and degrading habitats
Introducing harmful invasive species
Increasing human population growth, pollution, climate change, and overexploitation

58. Three Big Ideas (cont’d.)
We should avoid causing the extinction of wild species
Species provide vital ecosystem and economic services
Their existence should not depend primarily on their usefulness to us

59. Three Big Ideas (cont’d.)
We can work to prevent the extinction of species and to protect overall biodiversity and ecosystem services by:
Using laws and treaties
Protecting wildlife sanctuaries
Making greater use of the precautionary principle