1. Cognition (Unit 7A and B) Review: 1. Memory 2. Problem Solving 3. Language

2. Cognitive Psychology -language, problem solving, decision making, reasoning, memory Metacognition=Knowledge about the principles and workings of cognition

3. Figure 7.2 Three key processes in memory

4. Encoding: Getting Information Into Memory Attention=the filter Without filter, life would be chaos! (working in groups in a large class) Selective attention = selection of input-lets us notice stimuli-can not focus on 2 conversations at once

5. Encoding-Levels of Processing: How we process results in different memory codes Level-of-processing theory-Results in Deeper processing (Semantic=by meaning- why definitions in own words is best): results longer lasting memory codes They proposed 3 levels of processing when dealing with verbal information Encoding levels: –Structural = shallow(how word looks) –Phonemic = intermediate (how it sounds-involves saying the word) –Semantic

6. Things that Enrich Encoding and Improve- Memory Elaboration/Elaborative Rehersal (using examples)= linking a info. to other information at the time of encoding Self-Referent Encoding=Personal examples best –Thinking of examples-apply classical conditioning to your own fear of spiders Visual Imagery = creation of visual images to represent words to be remembered Dual-coding theory-memory enhanced by using semantic (meaning) & visual codes since either can lead to recall

7. Storage: Maintaining Information in Memory Information-processing theories/Three- box Model –Subdivide memory into 3 different stores Sensory, Short-term, Long-term

8. Figure 7.7 The Atkinson and Schiffrin model of memory storage

9. Sensory Memory Brief preservation of information in original sensory form (sight, sound) Echoic-hearing Iconic-seeing –lasts ¼ second –George Sperling (1960) Classic experiment on visual sensory store-showed it to be brief

10. Short Term Memory (STM)- Working Memory 1. Limited capacity – “magical number 7 plus or minus 2” of unfamiliar items (George Miller) We can increase this STM through: –Chunking – grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit (95-468-05-211 vs.954-680-5211) Shopping list-use 7 categories 2. Limited duration - 20 seconds without rehearsal Rehearsal (repetition-leads to longer STM and LTM) and Mnemonic Devices (visual & verbal memory tricks that aid in encoding info. for easier recall)

11. Long-Term Memory: Unlimited Capacity and duration Two Views=Don’t remember at times what is stored due to 1.retrieving difficulties or 2. not permanent Permanent storage? –Flashbulb Memories-unusually vivid, detailed recall of momentous events- distortions of these memories increase over time

12. Long-Term Memory Encoding in LTM-is according to meaning, usually not verbatim (word for word) Serial Position Effect-remember items at beginning (primacy effect) and end of a list/event (recency effect)- items in middle poorly remembered Recency effect -items still in STM Primacy effect -we have a chance to rehearse

13. Maintaining/Organizing LTM Rote Rehearsal/repetition useful for holding info. in LTM Elaborative Rehearsal=relating new information to something that we already know-more links make, more likely to remember the new info. later Schema-mental representations-helps us to store and remember

14. Maintaining/Organizing LTM Clustering=AUTOMATIC-tendency to remember similar and related items in groups or categories Dog pear Apple plumber Zebra florist Diver banana Lion bear Orange Baker

15. Maintaining/Organizing LTM Semantic Networks=our brain creates a web of interconnected memories, each one tied to many other memories-related to priming-one memory leads to next

16. Types of Long Term Memories Explicit- (see 2015 essay) Declarative (can explain) Semantic Episodic Memories of Memories Facts and of personally Concepts experienced events Example: Albany is in A trip to NY Albany Implicit- non-declarative (can’t explain) Procedural Emotional Motor skills Learned and habits emotional reactions Example: Ice skating feeling disgust at sight of a rat

17. Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon– a failure in retrieval –Retrieval cues can help, may know the first letter Recalling an event (lunch 2 days ago) –Context cues/context dependent memories-put self back in the event, at the lunch table, with friends Reconstructing memories-memories are sketchy reconstructions of the past-we reconstruct tails to fit in our existing schemas –Misinformation effect-reconstructive distortions show up in eyewitness testimony (car accident example)-Loftus

18. Retrieval: Getting Information Out of Memory State-Dependent Memory-recalling events while in the same state of consciousness (drowsy, high) as when encoded Mood-Congruent Memories-recall happy events when happy and sad events when sad

19. Forgetting: When Memory Lapses Retention – amount of material retained-3 methods for measuring retention in studies: –Recall –producing info. without cues (essays) –Recognition –selecting previously learned info. from presented options (ex. multiple choice test)- Easier than recall –Relearning – memorize info. a second time to see how much time is quicker Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve-1885, he memorized nonsense syllables He concluded most forgetting occurs rapidly after learning (in the first hour)

20. Why Do We Forget? 1. Ineffective Encoding -we never really got the info into LTM -read but didn’t pay attention-names at a party-explains while multitasking creates a problem for learning 2. Decay theory-memory traces fade with time (unproven) 3. Interference theory more likely-impact of competing, usually similar, material/ information (ex. negative/positive punishment vs. reinforcement) –Retroactive-new hurts old –Proactive-old hurts new

21. Retrieval Failure Encoding Specificity Principle-can’t retrieve because cue doesn’t match memory code-Ex. see a person out of their environment Repression -keeping distressing thoughts buried (I forget a dentist appt. or to help friend move) –Authenticity of repressed memories?: Painful memories difficult to forgrt

22. The Physiology of Memory Long-term Potentiation- lasting change at the synapses when long-term memories are formed Results in better response to stimuli in synapses after LTP Without Long Term P=no memories formed

23. Memory retrograde amnesia can’t remember events before injury anterograde amnesia can’t remember events after injury-50 first dates Source amnesia inaccurately recall where info. originates (ex. Remember attending B-Day party but your memory comes from a picture, or remember your 4 th b-day party, but actual memory is from mom’s tails about the party) priming-activating the semantic networks verses Framing- the way the problem/situation is presented impacts one’s view/decision (car accident wording)

24. Other Memory “Things” Metamemory Prospective memory Next in line effect Spacing effect Automatic processing (TV show)v. Effortful processing (AP Test)

25. Review Chapter 7B: Language and Thought (2014-15)

26. The Hierarchical Structure of Language Phonemes = smallest units of sound –(ed=d and to =tew sound) Morphemes = smallest unit of meaning –A and But or root words, prefixes, suffixes Semantics = meaning of words and word combinations Syntax (grammar) = a system of rules for arranging words into sentences –Different rules for different languages

27. Language Development/Aquisition: Milestones Before 1 Year Pre-linguistic Events:=crying, cooing, babbling, laughing 1 year –holophrasic stage =one word stage –similar cross-culturally – words for parents 18-24 months –overentensions (ball for any round object) and underextensions (use doll only to refer to a single, favorite doll) End of second year Telegraphic speech (“Give doll”) End of third year – complex ideas, plural, past tense –Overregularization or overgeneralization=rules are incorrectly generalized (“I hitted the ball”)

28. Theories of Language Acquisition (how we develop language) 1. Behaviorist (Skinner) =environmental Factors (nurture): imitation, reinforcement and conditioning 2. Nativist theory of language acquisition (or Nature argument): Noam Chomsky learning the rules of language is innate as seen with “goed,” “eated” Language Acquisition Device (LAD)-an innate process that works to learn language, and lets children learn language quickly Critical Period (a window of opportunity for learning or else our development will suffer) for language acquisition 3. Current View combination of learning and inborn tendency for language More Chomsky: Surface Structure : sound of sentence Deep Structure : meaning of the sentence- semantics. Understanding a sentence does from Surface to Deep

29. Language and Cognition *Linguistic Relativity/Determinism Hypothesis (Benjamin Whorf) language we use might control and limit our thinking. Language changes what we can think about, depending on words in our language

30. Describing Thought Schema-mental framework -helps organize info. based on experiences Script- personal view on how an event will be played out based on experience (my first day of class each semester; a blind date) Cognitive Map-mental representation of an environment/ mental map (the school) Concepts-similar to schemata/may base these concepts on info. that shares similar features –DOG Prototypes-the most typical example of a particular concept-based on personal experience-POODLE

31. Effective Problem Solving Barriers to effective problem solving: Irrelevant Information-say a math word problem Functional Fixedness-perceive item only in terms of its most common use Mental Set-using only problem solving strategies that have worked in past-thinking gets into a rut (nine dot problem)

32. Approaches to Problem Solving Heuristics=“rule of thumb” for solving problem/making decision; shortcuts –speedier/more error prone Algorithms=Systematic trial-and-error gives guaranteed solution (ex. Step by step recipe) Representativeness Heuristic-judging a situation on how similar it is to a prototype or sample a person has in her mind (your in college; you must drink) rep. heuristics lead us to not consider other factors Availability Heuristics-judging a situation based on recent, vivid or distinctive info. that “pops into mind” first-not safe to go to college Anchoring Heuristics-using information as a reference for estimating an unknown value or information…value may be incorrect Example: give you a price-an anchor; you use this price on which to base your counter offer

33. Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning About Decisions The gambler’s fallacy-belief that the odds of an event increases if the event hasn’t occurred recently- overestimating the improbable Confirmation Bias=seek info. that supports one’s decisions/beliefs while ignoring disconfirming info. Overconfidence in our beliefs results in: Belief perseverance=we maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradicted-EX: on a high protein diet, read that low cal diet better, high protein diet remains

34. Understanding Pitfalls in Reasoning About Decisions The overconfidence effect=due to intuition- eager to confirm beliefs and we explain away failures (I know he is a jerk, even though he was nice) Framing=the way an issue is presented affects decisions and judgments (72% passes or 32 % failed

35. More on Reasoning deductive reasoning=from a general assumption to particulars. All my teachers hate me; Mrs. Merlino must hate me Inductive reasoning=going from particular facts or observations to a general conclusion-a dog bites me=all dogs bite Creativity (not correlated with intelligence) is associated with being original/novel and using divergent thinking (searching for multiple answers) rather than convergent thinking (thinking pointed towards one solution)