1. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Chapter 2 The Nature of Science and Research 1

2. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Alternatives to Research-Based Knowledge 1. Authority Knowledge: A basis of knowledge in which we rely on what someone in a position of authority says. 2. Traditional Knowledge: A basis of knowledge in which we accept as being true because of a long-running custom or belief. 2

3. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved 3. Common Sense Knowledge: A basis of knowledge in which we rely on commonly accepted, ordinary reasoning. 4. Media Knowledge: A basis of knowledge in which we rely on the media’s construction of the truth, which often relies on claims made by politicians and government officials. Alternatives to Research-Based Knowledge 3

4. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved 5. Personal Experience Knowledge: A basis of knowledge in which we rely on our own lived experiences. Alternatives to Research-Based Knowledge

5. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Four Errors of Personal Experience 1. Overgeneralization: Statements that go far beyond what can be justified based on the data or empirical observations that one has. 2. Selective Observation: Making observations in a way that simply reinforces preexisting thinking, rather than attempting to observe in a balanced and critical manner. 5

6. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Four Errors of Personal Experience 3. Premature Closure: Making a judgment or reaching a decision and ending in an investigation, before one has the amount or depth of evidence required by scientific standards. 4. Halo Effect: Allowing the prior reputation of persons, places, or things to color one’s evaluations, rather than attempting to evaluate in a neutral, equal manner. 6

7. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Kuhn’s Progression of Knowledge The idea that scientific knowledge does not progress in a simple linear and cumulative fashion; rather, knowledge progresses in the context of a community, meaning that professional, personal, and cultural interests play important roles. 7

8. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Theory, Data, and Evidence 8 Theory: A system of interconnected ideas that condenses and organizes knowledge for purposes of understanding and/or explanation. Data: The empirical evidence or information that one gathers carefully, according to rules or procedures. Empirical Evidence: Observations that people experience through the senses—touch, sight, hearing, smell, and taste.

9. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Norms of the Scientific Community 1. Universalism : The scientific norm that says research should be judged only on the basis of scientific merit. 2. Disinterestedness : The scientific norm that mandates that researchers should strive to be impartial and open to unexpected findings and new ideas. 9

10. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Norms of the Scientific Community 3. Communalism: The scientific norm that says that producing knowledge is a public act and the finding should be available for all to use. In order for it to be accepted into the community, it must be rigorously reviewed. 4. Research Honesty : The scientific norm that demands the utmost honesty in all aspects of the research process; dishonesty, fraud, or cheating is a major taboo. 10

11. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Journals of Criminal Justice Crime and Delinquency Criminal Justice: The international Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice Criminology Critical Criminology American Criminal Law review Crime, Media, Culture Journal of Criminal Justice Justice Quarterly Policing and Society Punishment and Society Theoretical Criminology Journal of Gangs Howard Journal of Criminal Justice 11

12. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Steps in Research Process 1. Select a topic 2. Focused research question 3. Design the study 4. Collect data using the research method selected 5. Statistical analysis 6. Interpret the data 7. Inform others: write a report or article 12

13. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Scientific Research and Time 13 Cross-Sectional Research: Any study that examines information on many cases at one point in time. Longitudinal Research: Any research that examines information from many units or cases across more than one point in time.

14. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Types of Longitudinal Research 1. Time Series Research: Longitudinal research in which information can be about different cases or people in each of several time periods. Example: 1950 19651980 1995 A,B C,D E,F G,H 14

15. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Types of Longitudinal Research 2. Panel Study: Longitudinal research in which information is about the identical cases or people in each of several time periods. Example: 1985 19952005 A,B A,B A,B 15

16. Criminal Justice and Criminology Research Methods, Second Edition Kraska / Neuman © 2012 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 All Rights Reserved Types of Longitudinal Research 3. Cohort Study: Longitudinal research in which information about a category of cases or people that shared a common experience at one time period is traced across subsequent time periods. Example: 1950  1995 All those married in 1962 16