1. Unit 2: Culture and Social Structures Ch 3: Culture Ch 4: Socialization Ch 5: Social Structure and Society Ch 6: Groups and Formal Ch 6: Groups and Formal OrganizationsOrganizations Ch 7: Deviance and Social Control

2. Ch 3 – Culture CultureThe knowledge, language, values, customs, + physical objects that are passed from one generation to the next among members of a group. Examples of parts of culture: Material Technology Buildings Transportation Tattoos, piercings Food Music Clothing Nonmaterial Language Gov.’t/Economy Holidays Religion Sports Dancing Values

3. Culture helps explain human social behavior. What we do/don’t do, like/dislike, believe/deny, or value/discount are based on our culture. It dictates our relationships w/ others. IT MUST BE LEARNED! A society is a group of people who live in a defined territory + participate in a common culture – culture is that society’s total way of life. So if you move to a different country, you take your culture w/ you. You may or may not begin to join that society + adopt their culture.

4. Influences on behavior besides culture Instincts are genetically inherited patterns of behavior – unlearned ways of acting. Why is culture more important than instincts in determining human behavior? B/c if only instincts controlled us, we would all act the same. Ex. Parenting - Some people want to be parents + some don’t. - Some are good + some abuse their children. Culture determines what type of shelter to build, food to eat, clothes to wear, etc… Heredity – includes our DNA, reflexes (simple, biologically inherited, automatic reactions to physical stimuli), + drives (biologically inherited impulses to discomfort).

5. SociobiologyThe study of the biological basis of human behavior. Combines Darwin’s Theory of Evolution w/ modern genetics. They assume that the behaviors that contribute to the survival of humans are biologically based. Ex. sexual reproduction, parental affection + care, education of the young, friendship, etc… Applies many of the same beliefs to other species. Criticisms of sociobiology: The importance placed on genetics could be used to label some races as superior/inferior. It doesn’t explain the wide variation in societies. End Section 1

6. Passing down culture For a culture to continue, it must be learned by each new generation. The creation + transmission of culture depends heavily on symbols (things that represent something else). Symbols include objects, sounds, smells, tastes, etc… The most powerful symbols are those that make up language. - Language allows us to create culture + removes limits on explaining time + place.

7. Language + culture The Hypothesis of Linguistic Relativity (or The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis) states that our idea of reality depends largely on what language we speak. How we think about a thing or idea relates to the # + complexity of words available to describe that thing or idea. Even varies from one dialect to another. When something is important to a society, they will have many words to describe it. Can change when people learn new languages or cultures add words to their language. But language isn’t the only thing that shapes our perception of reality. For ex., experience does also. End Section 2

8. NormsThe rules defining appropriate + inappropriate behavior. They help explain why people in a group/society behave similarly in similar circumstances. May guide our behavior w/o our awareness until someone breaks a norm. There are 3 types of norms: 1. Folkways: rules that cover customary ways of thinking, feeling, + behaving but lack moral overtones. B/c they aren’t deemed vital to group welfare, disapproval of breaking them isn’t great. We may think people who break these norms are odd or rude, but not dangerous or immoral. Ex. Talking too loudly.

9. 2. Mores (MOR-ays): are rules that cover ways of thinking, feeling, + behaving that have moral significance + shouldn’t be broken by members of the society. Ex. Incest. A taboo is a norm so strong that breaking it demands punishment by the group. Incest is the only taboo present in all societies (although its definition varies). 3. Laws: are rules that cover ways of thinking, feeling, + behaving that are formally defined + enforced by officials. Folkways + mores are often unconsciously created over time while laws are consciously created + enforced. Laws can come from folkways + mores. Sometimes laws remain official even after the folkways/mores of a society have changed.

10. Is it a folkway, more, or law? Is it a folkway, more, or law? _________ 1. A woman smoking while pregnant _________ 2. Mr. Chamblee picking his nose _________ 3. Kendall driving 10 mph over the speed limit _________ 4. Dani throwing a soda can out of her car window _________ 5. Tavon loudly belching in his sociology class _________ 6. Ronald talking on his cell phone at the movies _________ 7. A teenager cussing at a minister or rabbi _________ 8. Shoplifting baby formula to feed your baby More Folkway Law Folkway Law Folkway More Law

11. Norms must be learned + accepted. Groups teach norms partly through sanctions (rewards or punishments used to encourage people to follow norms). Formal sanctions are sanctions imposed by people w/ special authority (Ex. Parents, teachers, judges, organizations, etc…). Informal sanctions are sanctions that can be applied by most members of a group. As we age, we may conform to norms w/o the fear of sanctions b/c we have accepted the behavior, wish to avoid guilty feelings, +/or fear social disapproval. Instead we mentally sanction ourselves.

12. Values Broad ideas about what is good or desirable shared by people in a society. Values form the basis for norms. Very general, they don’t dictate precise ways of thinking, feeling, + behaving. So different societies/groups can have different norms based on the same value. Ex. Value: Freedom of Press - Possible norms: - Can print anything - Can print anything that is true - Can print anything as long as it doesn’t hurt anyone - Can print anything that is obtained legally

13. SANCTIONS are used to enforce FOLKWAYSMORESLAWS which are types of NORMS that are based on VALUES End Section 3

14. Nonmaterial vs. material culture Culture can be divided into 2 parts: non-material + material. Non-material culture consists of knowledge, ideas, + beliefs (ideas about the nature of reality) that influence people’s behavior. Beliefs are important b/c people base their behavior on what they believe to be true. Material culture consists of the tangible objects of a culture– the things we can touch. The uses + meanings of physical objects can vary from one society to another. Ex. Crosses are holy, flags should be treated w/ respect, etc… Ideal culture refers to the cultural guidelines that group members claim to accept, but real culture is the actual behavior patterns of members of a group. Sometimes they conflict. But ideal culture is important b/c it provides us w/ high standards + helps detect deviants. End Section 4

15. Cultural change All cultures experience change. Norms, values, + beliefs are relatively stable but do change over time. Why does culture change? 1. Discovery – discovering something that already exists (ex. women can learn math + science). 2. Invention – the creation of something new (ex. telephones, cars, etc…). 3. Diffusion – Borrowing aspects of culture from other cultures (ex. spaghetti, democracy, etc…).

16. Cultural diversity Caused by: Social categories (groups that share a social characteristic such as age, gender, or religion) – certain behaviors are associated w/ particular groups. Groups that are set apart: Subcultures (groups that are part of the dominant culture but differ from it in some important aspects) such as certain ethnic communities w/in cities. Countercultures (subcultures deliberately + consciously opposed to certain central beliefs or attitudes of the dominant culture) such as the hippies or punk groups. Ethnocentrism is judging others in terms of one’s own cultural standards. It can help people feel good about themselves + promote stability through traditions + behavior emphasized. But it can also lead to societies becoming inflexible + feelings of superiority. Read p.80 “Cultural Relativism”

17. Cultural universals General cultural traits that exist in all cultures. Researchers have found over 70. Includes sports, music, cooking, clothing, division of labor, education, gov.’t, etiquette, family, marriage, sexual restrictions, religious rituals, etc… There are different ways of expressing universals known as cultural particulars. Ex. Different styles of clothing or housing, marriage laws, etc… Why do cultural universals exist? Biological similarity of humans – ex. we all need food + children must be cared for in order for society to continue, etc… The physical environment – ex. clothing + housing is needed to protect us from the elements, etc… Societies face many of the same problems + to survive, they must teach new members their culture – ex. language, how to divide up labor, etc… End Section 5

18. Ch 4 – Socialization Socialization’s effects on personality Socialization is the cultural process of learning to participate in group life. Nearly all human social behavior we consider natural + normal is learned. Socialization begins at birth + continues throughout life. Successful socialization results in people being able to fit into all kinds of social groups. W/o the proper socialization skills, you’d have difficulty making friends, finding + keeping a job, belonging to clubs, maintaining romantic relationships, etc… Psychological studies show that w/o prolonged + intensive social contact children don’t learn basics like walking, talking, loving, etc…

19. In Harry Harlow’s experiment, baby monkeys would attach themselves to a cloth surrogate monkey w/o food instead of a wood + wire monkey w/ food, showing that imprinting is also important for contact comfort. Infant monkeys raised in isolation grew into hostile, distressed, apathetic adults who never exhibited normal sexual patterns. As mothers, they rejected or ignored their babies + sometimes abused them. So clearly socialization is important to other primates as well. Human babies denied close contact usually have difficulty forming emotional ties w/ others. Read p.113-114 “Case Studies on Isolated Children: Anna and Isabelle” End Section 1

20. Views of socialization: Functionalism + Conflict Perspective Functionalism believes socialization helps create a stable society by teaching the same basic norms, beliefs, + values. The Conflict Perspective believes socialization is a way of keeping the status quo – so it maintains the advantages of the upper classes, thus keeping things unbalanced + in conflict.

21. Views of socialization: Symbolic Interactionism Believes that socialization is the major deciding factor in human nature. So how are we socialized according to symbolic interactionism? Your self-concept is an image of yourself as a separate identity from other people. Other people serve as mirrors for the development of your self-concept. So your looking-glass self is your image of yourself based on what you believe others think of you. The process is often rapid + unconscious. 1. We imagine how we appear to others. 2. We imagine their reaction to our (imagined) appearance. 3. We evaluate ourselves based on how we imagine others have judged us. Leads to a positive or negative self-evaluation. The “looking-glass” can be distorted. Significant others are people whose reactions are the most important to your self-concept.

22. Role taking involves assuming the viewpoint of another person + using that viewpoint to shape the self-concept. We try to anticipate what others will say/do + how to respond to them. This ability develops in a 3 step process: 1. During the imitation stage (begins around 1½-2 yrs old) children imitate the physical + verbal behavior of significant others w/o understanding. 2. During the play stage (begins around 3-4 yrs old) children act in ways they imagine other people would – assuming those roles one at a time. - Ex. playing “mommy”, “teacher” or “police officer”. 3. During the game stage we anticipate the actions of others based on social rules + are able to consider the roles of several people simultaneously.

23. As we grow older we develop the concept of a generalized other (the internalized attitudes, expectations, + viewpoints of society that guide our behavior + reinforce our sense of self) in which we imagine how our actions are viewed by “others”. Your “self” is composed of 2 parts: The “me” is the part created through socialization + accounts for predictability + conformity. The “I” is the part that accounts for unlearned, spontaneous + often creative acts. The “I” constantly interacts w/ the “me”. The 1 st reaction of the self comes from the “I”, but (usually) before we act, the “me” directs our reaction into socially acceptable channels. End Section 2

24. Agents of socialization: the family The family is critical for helping a child: Think + speak Internalize norms, beliefs, + values Form some basic attitudes Develop a capacity for intimate + personal relationships Acquire a self-image Our family’s social class also shapes what we think of ourselves + how others treat us.

25. Agents of socialization: schools Schools introduce children to life beyond the family. Many of the child’s relationships are now impersonal + rewards/punishments are based on performance instead of affection. Slowly, children are taught to be less emotionally dependent on their parents. Besides the obvious curriculum, children are also taught the hidden curriculum (the informal + unofficial aspects of culture that children are taught in preparation for life) about things such as discipline, cooperation, conformity, etc… Schools also teach children about how time is experienced in the real world w/ schedules + deadlines.

26. Agents of socialization: peers A peer group is a set of individuals of roughly the same age + interests. This is the only agency of socialization not primarily controlled by adults. Children have the opportunity to engage in give-and-take relationships unlike family + schools where they are subordinates. Children usually belong to several peer groups. Gives children experience in self-direction as they begin to make their own decisions. They develop self-sufficiency.

27. Agents of socialization: mass media Mass media refers to the means of communication designed to reach the general population. Includes tv, radio, internet, books, music, movies, newspapers, magazines, etc… Although often highly distorted, it’s often through mass media that children are 1 st introduced to many aspects of their culture. Provides role models for children to imitate + gives examples of how to behave in social situations (again, often distorted). Offers ideas about the values of our society. Most sociologists agree that watching aggressive behavior in the media significantly aggressive behavior. End Section 3

28. Desocialization + resocialization Symbolic interactionism believes socialization is a lifelong process. Desocialization is the process by which people give up old norms, values, attitudes, + behaviors. Often involves the destruction of the old self-concept of personal identity. Often occurs in total institutions (places in which people are separated from the rest of society + controlled by officials) such as prisons, mental hospitals, cults, etc… Often involves the removal of personal possessions, loss of privacy, + use of serial numbers instead of names – this contributes to the breakdown of their past identity. Resocialization is the process in which people adopt new norms, values, attitudes, + behaviors. This can occur in total institutions through the use of rewards + punishments. Also occurs during changes in life stages, such as starting college, getting married, retiring, etc…

29. Anticipatory socialization The voluntary process of preparing to accept new norms, values, attitudes, + behaviors. Doesn’t generally occur in prisons or mental hospitals b/c it involves VOLUNTARY change. May occur in people who are moving from one stage in their lives to another (Ex. going to college, getting married, retiring, etc…) A reference group is a group whose norms + values are used to guide behavior – often the group w/ whom you identify. End Section 4

30. Ch 5 – Social Structure and Society Social structureThe underlying patterns of relationships in a group. We learn social structure from others. A status is a position a person occupies w/in a social structure. It helps us define who + what we are in relation to others w/in the same social structure. An ascribed status is a position that is not earned nor chosen, but assigned. Ex. gender, age, etc… An achieved status is a position that is earned or chosen. Ex. career, marital status, etc…

31. A person holds more than one status at a time. A status set is all of the statuses that a person occupies at any particular time. Ex. female, 30 yrs old, single, teacher, daughter, sister, Christian, etc… Some statuses are more important to individuals than others. A master status is important b/c it strongly affects most other aspects of a person’s life. Occupations are often master statuses. Age can be as well. So master statuses may be ascribed or achieved. End Section 1

32. Rights + obligations A role is an expected behavior associated w/ a particular status. A role is a status “in action”. A status contains various roles. Ex. A teacher must grade, develop lesson plans, communicate w/ parents + administrators, keep up w/ current best practices in education, discipline unruly students, motivate, etc… So a status describes a position + a role describes a behavior. Rights are behaviors that an individual expects from others. Obligations are behaviors that individuals are expected to perform towards others. A person’s culture influences their roles, rights, + obligations. Ex. a wife in America compared to a wife in a remote African village.

33. Role performance + social interaction Role performance is the actual behavior of an individual in a role. Can occur w/o an audience (ex. a basketball player practicing while alone) but usually involves social interaction. Social interaction is how people relate to each other + influence each other’s behavior. Ex. One boy taunts another. The other boy calls him a name in return. The first boy then punches him leading to a fight.

34. Role conflict + role strain Role conflict exists when the performance of a role in one status interferes w/ the performance of a role in another. Ex. Students w/ jobs balancing time to study w/ work demands. Role strain occurs when the roles of a single status are inconsistent or conflicting. The problem is often a lack of time. Ex. A politician must spend time campaigning to get reelected while still trying to perform the duties for the current term. We deal w/ role conflict + strain by setting priorities +/or segregating roles (behaving differently while in different roles). End Section 2

35. Types of societies A society is made up of people living w/in defined territorial borders + sharing a common culture. Societies must meet their members’ basic needs such as food + shelter, but they do it in different ways. Those differences determine how societies are classified. There are 3 types: Preindustrial Industrial Postindustrial All societies are comprised of social structures w/ members knowing what is expected of them + what they can expect from others (rights + obligations).

36. Preindustrial societies: Hunting + gathering Survive by hunting animals + gathering edible foods. Oldest type of society. Usually nomadic – due to food supply + changing seasons. So they must carry all of their possessions w/ them. Tend to be very small (50 or less people). Sharing + cooperation are highly valued w/ little or no concept of private property. No social classes. No political institutions. Division of labor is based on age + gender. Primary emphasis is on the survival of the group.

37. Preindustrial societies: Horticultural Survive primarily through the growing of plants – gardening. These types of societies came into existence about 10-12 thousand yrs ago when people learned they could grow + harvest some plants instead of just gathering them. Led to more permanent settlements. Societies grew, averaging 1-2 thousand people. Primary emphasis is on providing for the family.

38. Preindustrial societies: Pastoral Survive primarily by raising + taking care of animals. Mostly use herd animals like cattle, camels, goats, + sheep which provide milk + meat. Although horticultural societies also kept domesticated animals like pigs + chickens, the difference is in where most of their food comes from. These types of societies came into existence about the same time as horticultural societies did. They must do some farming or trade w/ those who do for necessary grains to feed themselves + their animals. More migration than in than in horticultural or agricultural societies, but long-term villages can be maintained, depending on the terrain + climate. Women remain in the home while men herd the animals – so women’s status is diminished. The rise of horticultural + pastoral societies led to a surplus food supply. Allowed for a more complex division of labor (pottery making, religious leaders, etc…). Trade w/ other societies. Beginning of social inequalities, + thus social classes, as some people have more of a surplus than others.

39. Preindustrial societies: Agricultural Survive primarily by growing food through the use of the plow + animals. The difference b/w agricultural + horticultural societies is the use of the plow – this enables people to grow food much more efficiently. Led to a larger surplus of food. People could now spend more time on noneconomic activities such as formal education, politics, music, etc… Led to the rise of cities. Although families are still important, the gov.’t replaced them as the guiding force for the societies. Distinct social classes appeared w/ wealth + power based on land ownership. Trade becomes vital. $ systems also develop instead of just bartering goods + services. End Section 3

40. Industrial societies Depend on science + technology to produce its basic goods + services. Human + animal labor is largely replaced by machines. This is known as mechanization. Goods + services are paid for w/ wages. Extremely large food surpluses lead to urbanization (the shifting of population from farms + villages to large cities). Education shifts to more formal schools. Blood relations in importance. Women become less subordinate to men as they take paying jobs. Personal love + choice replace arranged marriages. Social class tends to be based more on occupational achievement than on the social class of one’s parents.

41. Emile Durkheim (France): Claimed that society is distinguished based on its type of social solidarity (the degree to which a society is unified in the face of obstacles). Social solidarity is the result of society’s division of labor: Believed in preindustrial times where labor tasks were similar + simple, societies were based on mechanical solidarity (social dependency based on widespread consensus of values + beliefs, enforced conformity, + dependence on tradition + family). Believed industrialized societies where labor tasks are different + complex, societies are based on organic solidarity (social interdependency based on a high degree of specialization in roles).

42. Postindustrial societies Economic emphasis is on providing services + information over basic manufactured goods. Has 5 major features: 1. The majority of the labor force are employed in services instead of agriculture + manufacturing. - In 2000, 75% of Americans worked in service industries. 2. White-collar employment replaces much blue-collar work. 3. Technical knowledge is the key organizing feature. 4. Technological change is planned + organized. 5. Reliance on computer modeling in all areas. End Section 4

43. Ch 6 – Groups and Formal Organizations GroupComposed of people who share several features: They share some ways of thinking, feeling, + behaving. They take one another’s behavior into account. They have one or more interest or goal in common. They are in regular contact w/ one another. INTERACTION AMONG MEMBERS IS KEY!!! Can be: Small  Large Informal  Formal Loose boundaries  Tight boundaries

44. A social category is made up of people who share a social characteristic. Ms. Griggs’s sociology students The poor Women 3 yr olds A social aggregate is made up of people who happen to be in the same place at the same time. Standing in a check-out line Waiting in a dentist’s office Social categories + aggregates may decide to interact + form a group. Teenagers protest a city-wide curfew Bystanders help someone involved in an accident.

45. Primary groupsGroups made up of people who are emotionally close, know one another well, + seek one another’s company. They are characterized by primary relationships (interactions that are intimate, personal, caring, + fulfilling). Conditions that favor primary groups are: Small size Face-to-face contact Continuous contact Proper social environment Think of a basketball team vs. a teacher + student relationship Functions of primary groups: Emotional support Socialization Encourage conformity Ex: Family, close circle of friends, etc…

46. Secondary groups Groups that are impersonal + goal oriented. They involve only a segment of its members’ lives. They interact impersonally, in ways involving only a limited part of their personalities known as secondary relationships. Ex. The senior class of TLH, coworkers at McDonald’s, members of the Interact Club, an army platoon, etc… Members of secondary groups may be friends w/ each other, but the purpose of the group is to accomplish a task, not enrich friendships + if the friendships become more important than the task, the group may become ineffective. Most groups fall somewhere in b/w the 2 extremes. Primary relationships may form in secondary groups + secondary relationships may form in primary groups. Ex. 2 coworkers becoming friends or a family member loaning another $. End Section 1

47. Reference groups Are groups we use to evaluate ourselves against + to acquire attitudes, values, beliefs, + norms. You don’t have to be a member of the group. Can be positive +/or negative attributes of the group. May serve as examples of what NOT to do, believe, etc… Can include: Family Friends Teachers Rock groups Athletes Church groups Etc…

48. In groups vs. Out groups There can’t be one w/o the other. An in group is an exclusive group demanding intense loyalty. An out group is a group targeted by an in group for opposition, antagonism, +/or competition. Ex. rival gangs, jocks vs. nerds, ethnic groups, religions, etc… In groups need boundaries to distinguish who is “in” + who is “out”. Can be symbols like slang, handshakes, gang signs or colors, badges, skin color, etc… or an actual place. Boundaries can form entrance barriers to outsiders. Maintaining boundaries shows loyalty + commitment, but can lead to cruelty +/or violence.

49. Social networks A web of social relationships that join a person to other people + groups. Ex: YOU DoctorsFamily Facebook Friends ChurchWorkMechanicSchoolFriends Family Friends Teachers/ Coaches Classmates Band Baseball teammates Bosses CoworkersCustomers Volunteer group Visiting pastors Sister's Friends In-laws Family Friends Parents’ Friends Family

50. Social networks can have multiple functions: Provide a sense of belonging + purpose Provide help + advice Help entering labor market The internet has made it possible to the speed + flow of information among social networks which tends to promote a sense of membership w/in a particular network. Social networks aren’t groups b/c they lack boundaries + don’t involve close or continuous interaction among all members + some relationships may also be too temporary. Include primary + secondary groups w/ strong + weak ties. End Section 2

51. Types of group social interaction: Cooperation Interaction in which individuals or groups combine their efforts to reach some goal. Usually occurs when reaching a goal requires the best use of limited resources + efforts. Ex. Flood victims Children playing games Team sports Couples dividing household duties

52. Types of group social interaction: Conflict Interaction involving trying to defeat an opponent. Working for a larger share of the rewards. Defeating the opponent is necessary. May become more important than achieving the goal. Usually considered disruptive, but can be beneficial. It can: Promote unity w/in opposition. Draw attention to social inequalities. Change norms, beliefs, + values in positive ways.

53. Types of group social interaction: Social Exchange A voluntary action performed w/ the expectation of getting a reward in return. Benefit to be earned is more important than the relationship. Leads to reciprocity (the idea that you should do for others as they have done for you). Different from cooperation b/c it’s just about “What’s in it for me?” vs. working together for a common goal.

54. Types of group social interaction: Coercion Interaction in which individuals or groups are forced to give in to the will of other individuals or groups. One group has power over the other. Opposite of social exchange. May be done through physical force or social pressure. Ex. Parents enforcing curfews Gov.’ts punishing criminals Gov.’ts torturing POWs Bullying Hazing

55. Types of group social interaction: Conformity Behavior that matches group expectations. We adapt our behavior to fit in w/ those around us. Promotes uniformity, predictability, + orderliness. It’s necessary in society – imagine life if people didn’t conform to traffic laws. Can lead to groupthink (self-deceptive thinking that is based on conformity to group beliefs + created by group pressure to conform). Members are pressured to uniformity + discouraged for expressing any concerns about group decisions. Can be avoided if group members make a conscious effort to encourage multisided discussions + the group is aware that disagreement will be tolerated.

56. Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment (This is NOT all in your book, but you are expected to know it!) Asch conducted a conformity experiment w/ male college students in the 1950s. Procedure: Asch put a naïve participant (unknowing participant – the person whose responses are under study) in a room w/ 7 confederates (participants who were told how to answer). The confederates agreed in advance what their answers would be. The naïve participant didn’t know this + was told the confederates were real participants like him. Each person in the room had to state aloud which comparison line (A, B or C) was most like the target line. The answer was always obvious, + the real participant always gave his answer last. In 12 of 18 trials, the 7 confederates gave the wrong answer. This experiment was repeated w/ different naïve subjects.

57. Results: Asch measured the # of times each participant conformed to the majority view. On average, 1/3 (32%) of the participants conformed. Over the 18 trials about 75% of participants conformed at least once + 25% of participants never conformed. Conclusion: Most of the naïve participants said they didn’t really believe their conforming answers, but had gone along w/ the group for fear of being ridiculed + a few said they did believe the group's answers were correct. Apparently, people conform for 2 main reasons: b/c they want to fit in w/ the group +/or they believe the group is better informed than they are. Issues: Sample NOT representative + results are a product of the time in history. Perrin + Spencer (1980) carried out the same experiment w/ British engineering, mathematics, + chemistry students. In only 1 out of 396 trials did a participant conform w/ the incorrect majority.

58. Factors affecting conformity (This is NOT in your book, but you are expected to know it!) Factors that conformity Factors that conformity Size of Group Conformity as group size, but there is little change once the group reaches 4-5. Lack of Group Unanimity Asch found just 1 person going against the group can conformity as much as 80%. Difficulty of Task The harder the task, the more people conform. When we are uncertain, we look to others for confirmation. Answer in Private When participants can answer in private, conformity. This is b/c there is no fear of rejection from the group. Status of Majority Group If someone has high status or a lot of knowledge (Ex. boss or teacher), more people will conform to their opinions. The the status of the group the the level of conformity. End Section 3

59. Formal organizations Prior to industrialization, people w/in a society spent the majority of their daily lives in primary groups (family, small schools, churches, etc…). Urbanization leads to people spending more time w/in formal organizations (groups deliberately created to achieve 1 or more long-term goals). Examples: Colleges Hospitals Gov.’t agencies Etc… Most formal organizations are also bureaucracies (formal organizations based on rationality + efficiency). Rationalization is the mind-set emphasizing knowledge, reason, + planning.

60. Characteristics of bureaucracies 1. Division of labor based on specialization. Creates experts in each area. 2. A hierarchy of authority. Power is the ability to control the behavior of others. Authority is the legitimate or socially approved used of power. Creates a pyramid of power with few at the top + many at the bottom. 3. A system of rules + procedures. Directs how work is done + decisions are made. 4. Written or computerized records of work + activities. This “organizational memory” leads to smooth functioning, stability, + continuity. 5. Promotions based on merit + qualifications. Equal treatment for all.

61. Advantages of bureaucracies Decision makers are chosen based on capability in a non-discriminatory way (or at least closer to that) as opposed to in the past when they were chosen based on wealth or family. They tend to be steady, precise, speedy, efficient, low-cost, + provide continuity. Although many complain about the impersonal treatment of bureaucracies, they are designed to protect individuals against favoritism + arbitrary decision making. Although discrimination still exists, bureaucracies lesson its effects.

62. Informal organizations Are groups w/in a formal organization in which personal relationships are guided by norms, rituals, + sentiments that are not part of the formal organization. Conformity to informal organization may be maintained through ridicule, sarcasm, criticism, + hostility. They exist to meet the needs ignored by formal organizations. They offer more personal affection, support, humor, + protection. They encourage conformity, but result in solidarity which protects group members from outside mistreatment.

63. The iron law of oligarchy Is the theory that power increasingly tends to become more + more concentrated in the hands of a few members of any organization. Includes democratic organizations. Powerful members want to maintain + even gain power. 3 organizational factors encourage oligarchy: 1. Organizations need a hierarchy of authority to delegate decision making. 2. The advantages of being at the top allow them to strengthen their powers. They create a staff that is loyal to them, control the communications, + use organizational resources to their power. 3. Other members of the organization often defer to leaders – they give in. End Section 4

64. Ch 7 – Deviance and Social Control DevianceBehavior that departs from societal or group norms. It doesn’t have to be illegal (Ex. wearing sagging pants or too much make-up). What is considered deviant varies from one individual group + society to another. In diverse societies like the US, people widely disagree on what qualifies as deviant behavior. Negative deviance involves behavior that fails to meet accepted norms. People either reject, misinterpret, or are unaware of the norms. Positive deviance is over-conforming to social expectations. Leads to imbalance + extreme perfectionism. Ex. Society considers thinness to be the ideal look. Obesity = negative deviance Anorexia = positive deviance Sociologists consider a deviant to be a person who has violated 1 or more of society’s most highly valued norms.

65. Social controlWays to encourage conformity to society’s norms. Encourages order, stability, + predictability. There are 2 types: internal + external Internal social control comes from w/in the individual + is developed during the socialization process. We internalize social norms + usually don’t break them. External social control is based on social sanctions (rewards + punishments that encourage conformity to social norms). They may be positive or negative, formal or informal. End Section 1

66. Effects of deviance Negative: Destroys trust If not punished, can lead to nonconforming behavior in others Expensive – diverts resources (both human + monetary) Positive: Claries norms (helps us decide where to draw the line) Minor deviance may relieve pressure + more serious deviant behavior Can build unity w/in a society Can promote needed social change

67. Strain theoryAn anomie is a social condition in which norms are weak, conflicting, or absent. People don’t know how to behave b/c there is no clear “acceptable” behavior. The strain theory proposes that deviance is more likely to occur when a gap exists b/w cultural goals + the ability to achieve these goals by legitimate means. Ex. In our society, wealth is considered a normal goal. In poor neighborhoods, there is a lack of opportunity to earn $ legally, + so gangs often form So how do people respond to strain? 1. Conformity (only way that is NOT deviant) 2. Innovation – uses illegal means to achieve success of social goals (Ex. Gangs) 3. Ritualism – rejects the goal, but continues to use legitimate means (Ex. Politician who doesn’t really care, but keeps trying to get re-elected) 4. Retreatism – rejects goals + methods of achieving them – they quit trying (Ex. Drug addicts) 5. Rebellion – reject goals + methods of achieving them + develop new goals + methods (Ex. Some militia groups)

68. Control theoryProposes that conformity to social norms depends on the presence of strong bonds b/w individuals + society. The less connected an individual feels to his/her society, the more likely he/she is to become a deviant. Social bonds control people’s behavior b/c they don’t want to lose standing w/in their social groups. The basic elements of social bonds are: 1. Attachment to groups 2. Commitment (willingness to work) 3. Involvement (participation w/in social activities) 4. Belief (agreeing w/ society’s norms) The stronger these elements are, the more likely a person is to conform. End Section 2

69. How is deviance learned? The Differential Association Theory emphasizes the role of primary groups in passing on deviant behavior. The more people are exposed to deviance, the more likely they are to become deviants. Odds if the individual: 1. Knows more deviants than nondeviants. 2. Is very close to the deviants. 3. Is exposed to deviants at a young age.

70. The labeling theory States that society creates deviance by identifying particular members as deviant. These labels are often applied unevenly. An unmarried pregnant teenage girl is often seen as deviant but the baby’s father is not (or not as much). 2 youths knock over mailboxes on separate occasions – the poor one is seen as committing a crime by destroying property + gets a heavy fine w/ jail time + the middle class one is seen as playing a harmless prank + gets a slap on the wrist.

71. Degrees of deviance Consequences of labeling Primary deviance is deviance involving occasional breaking of norms that isn’t a part of the person’s lifestyle or self-concept. Secondary deviance is deviance in which an individual’s lifestyle + identity are organized around breaking society’s norms. The deviant status overshadows all others + these individuals actively + regularly plan to commit deviant behavior. Deviance becomes a way of life. Can cause the individuals pain + suffering by giving them a stigma (an undesirable trait or label that is used to characterize an individual). Ex: Ex-convicts, unemployed, etc… End Section 3

72. How do industrialized societies deal w/ deviant behavior? The conflict perspective sees deviant behavior as behavior that those in power believe is a threat to their interests. Critics of industrialized societies are considered deviants b/c their beliefs challenge the economic, political, + social basis. Industrialized societies need a willing workforce, so those who won’t work are considered deviants. Those who threaten private property (especially the property of the rich) are prime targets for punishment. People who show a lack of respect for authority are treated as deviants – even if it’s non-violent behavior. Certain activities are encouraged if they promote that society’s goals (Ex. Sports can be violent b/c they have rules + encourage competition).

73. Crime + punishment inequalities Even when the criminal offense is the same, Blacks + Hispanics are more likely than whites to be convicted + to serve more time. Blacks make up about 12% of the US’s population, but make up about 43% of inmates under the death penalty. In interracial murders, a black person is 13x more likely to be sentenced to death for the murder of a white person as a white person is for murdering a black person. About ½ of all homicide victims in the US are black, but the overwhelming majority of death row inmates are there for murdering whites.

74. So why the inequality? Minorities are less likely to have the economic resources to buy good legal services. The conflict perspective believes that society views minority interests as less important. Victim discounting (process of the seriousness of crime that injures people of lower status) occurs b/c if the victim is thought of as less valuable, the crime is considered less serious, + the punishment is therefore less severe. Ex. Murdering a drug dealer vs. murdering a police officer or politician.

75. White-collar crime Job-related crimes committed by high-status people. Includes things like price fixing, insider trading, embezzlement, bribery, toxic pollution, tax evasion, etc… According to the US Dept. of Justice, the cost of white-collar crimes are 18x than the costs of street crime. Illegal working environments cause about 1/3 of all work related deaths in the US – 5x more Americans are killed each yr from illegal job conditions than are murdered on the streets. People who commit these crimes are treated much more leniently than other criminals. They often get probation + are less likely to be imprisoned. If they are imprisoned, they tend to receive shorter sentences + serve in prisons w/ extra amenities. End Section 4

76. Measuring crime A crime is an act committed in violation of the law. Violent crime rates are significantly in the US than in most other industrialized countries. There are 2 major sources of crime statistic data: 1. The Uniform Crime Reports (UCR) are statistics gathered from police departments across the country by the FBI – reports are given voluntarily by law enforcement agencies. 9 types of crimes are tracked (murder, rape, aggravated assault, robbery, burglary, larceny, motor vehicle theft, arson, + hate crimes. Crime has been since the late 1980’s. Limitations: Some types of more minor crimes are less likely to be reported, about 2/3 of crimes aren’t reported, white-collar offenses are seldom included. 2. The National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) is conducted semiannually by the US Census Bureau. It’s surveys are more scientifically sound + helps make up for the underreporting of crime. These sources are very useful when used together.

77. Juvenile Crime Legal violations by people under 18 yrs old. Juvenile offenders are the 3 rd largest category of criminals in the US. Has been since the late 1980’s. Why? in the demand for crack cocaine. Gang truces. Repeat violent juvenile offenders have been given stiffer sentences. Other

78. Supplemental Gang Information The following information will NOT be in your textbook, but you will be expected to know it for the Ch 7 Quiz and Unit 2 Test.

79. What is a gang? A gang is an organization, association, or group of 3 or more, whether formal or informal, which has a common name +/or common identifying signs or symbols, whose members individually +/or collectively engage in criminal activity. Gang members are not just juveniles who spray paint walls. Gang members include both juveniles + adults who commit serious + violent crimes. They thrive on intimidation + notoriety. They vandalize + destroy public + private property to further their reputation. Their violence is not discriminatory. They cause heightened fears for safety.

80. Characteristics of gangs Gangs can be organized around race or ethnic group, $ making activities, or territories. Gangs usually claim a particular area of town + spend much of their time fighting rival gangs to keep them out of this territory. Most members are males ranging from 8-22 yrs old. Females, especially Asian + Hispanic, are moving away from the traditional role of being merely girlfriends of gang members + are forming their own gangs. Gangs wear particular items, styles, brands, or colors of clothing. Some gangs wear bandanas of a certain color or baseball caps of a specific team. Some gangs mark their bodies w/ tattoos of their gang name or symbol. Gangs often use a certain hand sign or handshake to tell others what gang they belong to. Some characteristics of Hybrid gangs: Less structured than older, more traditional gangs. Are locally based + have little or no real national affiliations. May or may not have an allegiance to a certain color. Usually do not have an identified leader. Gang members may switch gangs w/ no consequence.

81. General information Criminal gangs are active w/in all 50 states, D.C., + the American Commonwealths. Approximately 1.4 million gang members belong to more than 33,000 gangs. Gangs are responsible for an average of 48% of violent crime in most jurisdictions + up to 90% in several others. In 2009, the National Gang Threat Assessment reported that 94.3% of gang-related homicides involved the use of a firearm.

84. Recruiting new members Peer pressure, offers protection Intimidation Threaten safety of friends +/or family Family members already belong $ enticements Challenge to kids to take risks Invite to parties where gang related activities are occurring

85. Why do people join gangs? Excitement + recreation To earn $ Access to drugs/alcohol Low self-esteem/Establish identity/ Recognition Desire to belong to a group Peer pressure/intimidation Protection (real or perceived) Lack of family life or supervision Family tradition Close friends are gang members Revenge Failure to realize consequences of membership

86. Contributing factors Personal Low motivation + goals Low self-esteem Behavior + discipline problems Chemical use/abuse Negative involvement w/ peers, teachers, police, etc… Conflicting values about education School Low teacher expectations + poor education Lack of effective attendance +/or discipline system Poor physical environment Lack of crisis intervention Poor relations b/w school + community Community Lack of knowledge/denial of gang problems Lack of recreation facilities High transient population Presence of older gang members in community, esp. ex-cons Lack of community + school links Family Stressful home life Single-parent households Non-English speaking parents Parental non-involvement w/ school Lack of proper discipline Abuse or neglect Chemical use at home Difficulty bridging cultural gap b/w country of origin + U.S.

87. Why people shouldn’t join gangs 90% of gang members are arrested by the age of 18. 75% are arrested twice by the age of 18. 95% don’t finish high school. 60% are dead or in prison by the age of 20. The average life expectancy for an active gang member is 20 yrs 5 mos.

101. Approaches to Crime Control The criminal justice system is the institutions + processes responsible for enforcing criminal statutes. Includes police, courts, + correctional system. There are 4 approaches to control + punish criminals: 1. Deterrence (threat of punishment to discourage criminal actions) Sets an example for others Only tends to work if potential criminals know they are likely to get caught + that the punishment will be severe. In the US, punishment for crime is usually not certain, swift, or severe. Capital punishment has NOT been shown to deter murder, though 3/4 of Americans believe it does. In 2001, a study found that 2/3 of Americans favor the death penalty whether or not it deters crime. Whites are more likely to support it – but then they less likely than blacks or Hispanics to receive it.

102. 2. Retribution (type of punishment intended to make criminals pay for their acts) “Eye for an eye” way of thinking. Must be done w/in the legal system. 3. Incarceration (method of protecting society from criminals by keeping them in prisons) Can’t hurt others if they’re locked up. 3 strikes laws 4. Rehabilitation (process of changing or reforming a criminal through socialization) Many prisons have programs aimed at training prisoners in social + work skills to prepare them for society after their release. 30-60% of released criminals go back to prison in 2-5 yrs after they’re freed. Recidivism is the return to or repetition of criminal behavior. This mainly occurs b/c of the basic nature of offenders, the influence of more hardened criminals, + the stigma of being an ex-convict.

103. Alternatives to prisons 1. A combination of prison + probation also called “shock probation”. Designed to shock the person into the realities of prison life. 2. Community-based programs. Designed to reintroduce criminals into society. Gets criminals out of prison for at least part of the day into community programs to help break the “inmate code” learned in prison that opposes authorities. 3. Diversion strategy. Aimed at preventing or greatly reducing the offender’s involvement in the criminal justice system. Person is put in a community-based treatment program so they don’t acquire stigmatizing labels + unwanted behaviors often learned in prison. Most of these alternative programs haven’t been sufficiently studied to determine how well they work. End Section 5