1. CHAPTER 6: ROGERIAN ARGUMENT, TOULMIN LOGIC, AND ORAL ARGUMENTS ENG 113: Composition I

2. Understanding Rogerian Argument  Traditional Model of Argument = Confrontational  Classical Model (Aristotle)  Someone is: Right or Wrong Winner or Loser Innocent or Guilty  Carl Rogers – 20 th Century Psychologist  Confrontational argumentation can be counterproductive Attacks put opponent on the defensive Impossible for two sides to reach an agreement Result = hostility, ill will, anger, and conflict  New approach = Rogerian Argument

3. Rogerian Argument  Begins with the assumption that people of good will can find solutions to problems they have in common  Consider the other side—those with whom you disagree—as colleagues, not opponents  Enter a cooperative relationship, not an adversarial one  Search for common ground – points of agreement about a problem  This approach can lead to a solution that will satisfy everyone

4. Structuring Rogerian Arguments  Begin by establishing common ground  Point out that both sides share an interest in solving the problem or coming to an agreement  Describe the other side’s view of the problem  Use neutral terms with unbiased, impartial language  Present your own view of the problem  Fairly and objectively  Convince the reader that your position has merit  Concede the strengths of the other side’s position  Explain the benefits of an agreement/solution  End by reinforcing your position and emphasizing the possibilities of a mutually satisfying solution

5. Writing Rogerian Arguments  Typically used for emotional or controversial issues  Display empathy and respect for the audience  Understand audience’s concerns  Avoid confrontational language  Define common ground between your position and the audience’s point of view  Make concessions  Avoid “I win/You lose” situation  Reach consensus  Strength of the Rogerian argument rests on your ability to identify areas of agreement between you and your audience

6. Writing Rogerian Arguments  Rogerian arguments can be used to structure an entire essay  Can be included as one part of a more traditional argument  Typically appears in the refutation section, where opposing arguments are addressed

7. Structure of Rogerian Argument  Introduction:  Introduces the problem, pointing out how both the writer and reader are affected (establishes common ground)  Body:  Presents the reader’s view of the problem  Presents the writer’s view of the problem Includes evidence to support the writer’s viewpoint  Shows how the reader would benefit from moving toward the writer’s position Includes evidence to support the writer’s viewpoint  Lays out possible compromises that would benefit both reader and writer Includes evidence to support the writer’s viewpoint  Conclusion:  Strong concluding statement reinforces the thesis and emphasizes compromise

8. Understanding Toulmin Logic  Stephen Toulmin – Philosopher  The Uses of Argument (1958)  Way of describing the structure of argument  Observed that formal logic is effective for analyzing highly specialized arguments, it is inadequate for describing the arguments that occur in everyday life  Primarily concerned with the structure of argument at the level of sentences and paragraphs Model can be useful when dealing with longer arguments

9. Structure of Toulmin Argument  Simplest structure = 3 parts  The claim – the main point of the essay, usually stated as the thesis  The grounds – the evidence that a writer uses to support a claim  The warrant – the inference—either stated or implied—that connects the claim to the grounds  Built by using deductive or inductive reasoning  You arrive at your claim inductively from facts, observations, and examples  You connect the grounds and the warrant to your claim deductively

10. Constructing Toulmin Arguments  Expanded model  Claim – the main point of the essay – A debatable statement that the rest of the essay will support  Reason – a statement that supports the claim Often the reason appears in the same sentence with the claim connected to it by the word because  Warrant – the inference that connects the claim to the grounds Often an unstated assumption Ideally, an idea with which the audience agrees  Backing – statements that support the warrant

11. Constructing Toulmin Arguments  Expanded model continued:  Grounds – the concrete evidence used to support the claim Facts and observations that support the thesis Opinions of experts  Qualifiers – statements that limit the claim Can include words such as: most, few, some, sometimes, occasionally, often, and usually  Rebuttals – exceptions to the claim Counterarguments that identify the situations where the claim does not hold true

12. Writing Toulmin Arguments  Strengths of the Toulmin model  Emphasizes that presenting arguments is more than stating ideas in absolute terms  Encourages writers to make realistic and convincing points by including claims and qualifiers and by addressing opposing arguments in down-to-earth and constructive ways  Remind readers do not exist in a vacuum Aimed at real readers who may or may not agree with the writer

13. Writing Toulmin Arguments  Introduction  Introduces the problem  States the claim and the reason (and possibly the qualifier)  Body  Possibly states the warrant  Presents the backing that supports the warrant  Presents the grounds that support the claim  Presents the conditions of rebuttal  States the qualifiers  Conclusion  Brings the argument to a close  Strong concluding statement reinforces the claim

14. Understanding Oral Arguments  Oral arguments can be similar to a written argument  Includes and introduction, body, and conclusion  Addresses and refutes opposing points of view  Oral arguments have important differences from written arguments  Need to be considered to make sure the oral argument is effective

15. Understanding Oral Arguments  Listeners have to understand an oral argument the first time they hear it  Cannot reread an oral argument to clarify information  Need to design the presentation of the oral argument to help your listeners

16. Understanding Oral Arguments  An oral argument should  Contain verbal signals that help guide listeners Alert listeners to information to come and signal shifts from one point to another  Use simple, direct language and avoid long sentences Complex language is difficult to follow  Repeat key information Guideline: “Tell listeners what you’re going to tell them; then tell it to them; finally, tell them what you’ve just told them” Introduction – tell your listeners what you are going to tell them Body – discuss the points one at a time Conclusion – restate the points  Include visuals Identify your key points as you make them Clarify or reinforce key points and to add interest Charts, graphs, tables Help increase chances that what you are saying will be remembered

17. Planning an Oral Argument  Choose your topic wisely  Controversial Something listeners are interested in  Something you know about Familiar with basis issues Research  Know your audience  Determine what the audience already knows  Identify attitude – hostile, friendly, neutral  Helps to guide what information to include and what tactics to employ

18. Planning an Oral Argument Continued  Know your time limit  Plan to use the time wisely Not too long, not too short  Identify your thesis statement  Debatable, simple  Clearly conveys your position Must be understood the first time  Gather support for your thesis  Facts, observations, expert opinion, statistics  Personal experience and research

19. Planning an Oral Argument Continued  Acknowledge your sources  Protect yourself from plagiarism  Prepare speaking notes  Do not read the speech  Index cards – list points to be made Notes guide you as you speak Not too many Contain key information Number the notecards – keep in order

20. Planning an Oral Argument Continued  Prepare visual aids  Communicate thesis and supporting points more effectively Diagrams, photographs, slides, flip charts, overhead transparencies, handouts, objects Presentation software – PowerPoint, Prezi, YouTube videos  Should be relevant and support your thesis Irrelevant is distracting  Practice your presentation

21. Delivering Oral Arguments  Delivery is the most important part of the speech  Way you speak, interaction with the audience, posture, eye contact = effect the overall presentation  A confident controlled speaker will have positive impact on an audience  A speaker who is not confident will lose credibility

22. Delivering Oral Arguments  Guidelines to appear credible and reliable  Accept nervousness Breathe deeply Use visualization Empty your mind Drink water Keep things in perspective  Look at your audience  Speak naturally  Speak slowly

23. Delivering Oral Arguments Continued  Speak clearly and correctly  Move purposefully  Be prepared for the unexpected  Leave time for questions  Be prepared  Repeat a question before you answer it  Keep control of interchanges  Be honest  Use the last question to summarize Restate the main point of your argument

24. Composing an Oral Argument  Introduction  Presents the background of the issue  States the thesis  Body  Presents evidence: Point 1 in support of the thesis  Presents evidence: Point 2 in support of the thesis  Presents evidence: Point 3 in support of the thesis  Refutes opposing arguments  Conclusion  Brings the argument to a close  Concluding statement restates thesis  Speaker asks for questions