1. A2 timed essay "Describe and evaluate the biological explanations of gender development“ (24 marks) 15 minutes to read over plan 30 minute essay

2. Biosocial starter This approach focuses on the ______________ between biological and social factors in explaining gender. Biology is the ______________ on which social factors are built. The inborn traits and characteristics of a newborn baby (including their _____) affect the way that that _________ behave towards them Therefore carers behave in different ways depending on whether the baby is _________ or ___________. The child’s gender identity is therefore consistent with the way that the child has been _____________, and how they are raised is usually subtlety differently for boys and girls.

3. Argues that the interpretation of biological sex within a specific social and cultural context influences the treatment given to the child, and it is this which leads to the development of gender role behaviour and gender identity. It begins when a child is born Labelling a baby as boy or girl has all sorts of influences on how the baby is treated Social labelling and differential treatment of boys and girls interact with biological factors to influence development. This theory attempts to integrate nature and nurture. Money and Erhardt predicted that if a genetic male is labelled as a girl and treated as a girl before the age of three, he would acquire the gender identity of a girl.

4. IDA Nature vs. Nurture Free will/determinism in relation to gender socially-sensitive research cultural aspects of gender development.

5. Response A A strength of this study is that it provides evidence for nature and nurture, it provides the role of nurture when they learn through observation and self-socialisation and nature because they all 3 fixed stages go in order and are fixed. Another strength is that it has good cultural validity….. There is an attempt to evaluate but this is only partly effective. For example, it is not explained why the point about nature/nurture is a strength; and there is no link back to the question with respect to cultural validity.

6. Response B A strength of Kohlbergs theory is that it takes into account both nature and nurture, because it suggests that development of gender identity is due to biological maturation of the brain, but also that they learn gender appropriate behaviours. The theory is therefore multi- dimensional, and is more accepted because most psychologists agree that a biological and social approach is best to explain gender development. evaluation lack sufficient detail for the top level

7. Response C Kohlberg’s theory of gender development is good because it explains the roles of both nature and nurture within gender development – the process of brain maturation is a biological factor and so nature is involved in gender development, and nurture is involved through the child’s process of self-socialisation. As a result of this, Kohlberg’s theory is less reductionist than other theories of gender development such as the gender schema theory, and so Kohlberg’s theory provides a valuable insight into the development of gender.

8. IDA The biosocial approach to gender development is determinist. It is linked to determinism because a babies’ sex determines the way that people treat that child, and the way that child is raised causes its gender identity. So what? This does allow prediction of a child’s gender identity by looking at the child’s biology and the parenting style, but at the same time it ignores the complexity of gender development. There is a point at which children start to think about gender and behaviour and this may enable them to break free of the constraints that the biosocial approach suggests. The biosocial approach is overly deterministic – soft determinism seems a more logical way of thinking about gender development.

9. IDA 2 Some critics have suggested that the biosocial approach shows gender bias in that it perpetuates alpha bias - it exaggerates differences between the genders because it shows that gender develops as a result of biological sex and the different ways that you are treated and raised because of your sex. So what? The biosocial approach makes it seem a matter of determinism that the genders behave in different ways. This is problematic since it denies the potential for change that does exist and it also makes it seem less probable that males and females will behave in the same ways, while actually if socialisation is exactly the same for males and females there should be little difference in behaviour. So, superficially the theory does perpetuate alpha bias but it does also suggest that gender differences could potentially vanish if males and females are raised in exactly the same way.

10. Wider Evaluation 1.Advantages 2.Limitations/problems

11. Wider evaluation Key advantages Other theories are supported by this explanation… Culture, Social learning Highlights the role of Nurture Practical applications- child rearing, education Problems with biosocial explanation: Other approaches not in consideration- Cognitive/ Psychological factors Research is socially sensitive Difficult to establish cause and effect More evidence for biological influences than social

12. Exam Tip The most effective route to AO2/AO3 marks is likely to be reference to research studies including work with human participants (eg Bruce Reimer, CAH syndrome, influence of parents and peers on gender development) and with non- human animals (eg effects of manipulating prenatal levels of sex hormones on later sex-typed behaviours). To move up the bands findings should be accurately interpreted as supporting or contradicting the biosocial model rather than simply demonstrating biological or social/cultural influences. Methodological evaluation of research studies may earn AO2/AO3 credit if discussed in the context of the biosocial approach.

13. Gender dysphoria Gender dysphoria is included in this part of the Specification. It can be used to illustrate and discuss the biosocial approach to gender development. However the biosocial approach itself must be clearly described and used as a framework for the discussion of gender dysphoria for credit to be earned as either AO1 illustration or AO2/AO3 evaluation.

14. Gender dysphoria the condition of feeling one's emotional and psychological identity as male or female to be opposite to one's biological sex. When an individual feels that there is a mismatch between their anatomny (genetic sex) and their gender identity – so they identify more with the opposite sex. DSM-IV-TR (2000) – diagnostic criteria: Confusion between sex, gender identity and gender role such that there is a mismatch between gender identity and sex one is born with. Presence of a strong and on-going cross-gender identification Persistent discomfort with ones anatomical sex. A wish to have hormonal treatment and surgery to changes ones body to the desired sex and consistent with ones psychological type. The experience of GD has to persistent for over 2 years.

15. How can we use the biosocial approach in explaining gender dysphoria? Hormones: It is proposed that an over or under exposure of pre-natal hormones causes the basis for gender dysphoria. In the case of males born wanting to be females (MtF), it is proposed they have not been exposed to enough testosterone in the womb which could be due to their genes and therefore they develop an under-masculine/over-feminine brain. Therefore they are born looking like a male, with male genitals but with a brain which is more feminine in nature. In the case of women who are born wanting to be male (FtM) again, due to their genetic make-up, they have an underexposure to female sex hormones such as progesterone which result in the development of a masculine brain. Therefore they are born with female genitals and look like a woman but have a masculine brain. Labelling: This hormonal over or underexposure results in a person having the genitals of one gender and the brain of the opposite gender. Therefore, for example at birth a child is labelled a boy due to their genitals (a penis) and socialised as a boy e.g. reinforced for masculine behaviour and discouraged from feminine behaviours. However, this label as a boy does not match their feminised brain therefore this causes confusion and discomfort as the boy tries to understand why they have such a desire to be the opposite gender (a girl). Therefore the child feels like a girl but they are socialised as a male due to their outward appearance so this suggests it is this conflict between both biological and social factors which best explains gender dysphoria. Conflict between biological and social factors which cause gender dysphoria

16. AO2: Support Individuals with CAH –Hines and Kaufman (1994) - Play behaviour Interviews and observations show that CAH girls display increased preference for male-type toys like cars, and reduced preference for female-type toys, like dolls. This male-typical behaviour occurs despite the girls having been surgically feminised and raised as girls Hare et a (2009) looked at the DNA of 112 MtF transsexuals and found they were more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene than in a ‘normal’ sample. The effect of this abnormality is a reduction in the effectiveness of binding testosterone. Therefore meaning less testosterone is effecting the brain which may lead to under-masculinising of the brain. Money and Erdhardt: David Reimer: In relation to gender dysphoria this again highlights how it is this constant battle between both the social label and the biological drive to want to be the opposite gender which interact with each other to play a part in the discomfort experienced by dysphoria Among the Sakalavas in Madagascar, boys perceived as pretty are raised as girls and adopt female gender roles. Similarly, Alentian islanders in Alaska raise handsome boys as girls; their beards are plucked and they are later married to rich men. Vreugdenhilet al (2002)- boys born to mothers explored to DDT displayed feminized play.

17. AO2: Against -Diamond (1996) claims there is no evidence to support the claim that persistently dressing a young boy in girls clothings may cause GID. -Dessens et al (2005) studied 250 genetic females with CAH who were raised as females. Despite prenatal exposure to male hormones 95% were content with their female gender roles. The remaining 5% did experience GID but generally prenatal exposure to male hormones did not show a clear relationship with dysphoria. -Rekers (1995): reported that of 70 gender dypshoric boys, none had evidence of biological causes, but there was a common factor of a lack of stereotypical role models suggesting that social learning factor can play a role in this condition. IDA’s? Evaluation Correlational research: Case studies:

18. Overall discussion Does the biosocial theory do a good enough job in explaining gender dysphoria? IDA: Nature vs. Nurture? Retrospective case studies involve looking back at people who have been diagnosed with GID and piecing together the past. These methods are subject to memory bias and selective recall. Prospective studies involve taking a group and following them across childhood and early adulthood to map change and development. This often involves children who show moderate to strong cross-gender behaviour and who are referred to clinics by worried parents. Research evidence suggests that gender dysphoria diminishes over adolescence and early adulthood so that most children who show cross-sex identification do not go on to request sex changes. Green (1997) studied a group of 44 boys referred in childhood to a clinic for strong feminine behaviours and compared them to a group of 30 control boys matched for age. A follow-up at the age of 18 found that only one of the original 44 remained gender dysphoric and had opted for reassignment surgery. How can the biosocial approach explain this? Social sensitivity of research: As with all case study research, this is an exceedingly sensitive area. Researchers must balance the need to provide treatment with research interests into causes. Can the biosocial approach explain different types of Gender Dysphoria? Blanchard (1985) has proposed 2 distinct groups: ‘homosexual transgender’, who wish to change their sex because they are attracted to men and ‘non-homosexual transgender’, who wish to change their sex because they are sexually aroused by the thought of themselves as a woman. Conclusions? Based on this and all the info you’ve covered…Does the biosocial theory do a good enough job in explaining gender dysphoria? Yes or no? Why?

19. IDA for gender dysphoria This research is socially sensitive by suggesting that gender dysphoria is highly affected by nature. This means that it is not a persons fault that they have gender dysphoria but instead down to their biology. Therefore some people may try and find out if their unborn child has gender dysphoria in order to try and stop it from happening.

20. The biosocial approach to gender dysphoria is hard determinist as it proposes that the innate traits and characteristics of a newborn baby affect the way that carers behave towards them, thus the latter will consequently affect the childs own perception of gender in themselves and other people. Despite the approach looking at the childs characteristics and the carers response, it is too simplistic as it fails to offer an explanation as to when a child is cognitively aware of gender and associated behaviours. This therefore means that the biosocial approach to gender dysphoria is over- deterministic as it relies too heavily on biology to determine when a child is aware of gender identities.

21. The biosocial approach to gender dysphoria assumes the condition is deterministic, because it implies that the child is powerless over either the size of the sexually dimorphic nucleus, which is larger in the male brain, or that the child is completely influenced by social factors. Removing responsibility from the child does make treatment easier, but it also encourages people and the child themselves to view the condition as abnormal, so the child can not change the condition.

22. The biosocial approach to gender dysphoria (the social area) can be culturally biased as culture affects how a child is socialised and so also the consequences of the hormonal differences. This means that the way a child deals with their gender dysphoria largerly depends on their culture; for example countries such as Thailand are more accepting of gender realignment as it is more common, whereas it is seen as ucacceptable by countries such as the US which view gender dysphoria as a mental disorder and so people suffering from it are likely to hide it.

23. Homework Read the evolutionary approach of gender development for your lesson on Tuesday.